sexta-feira, junho 09, 2006

98) Supremacia nuclear americana

The Rise of U.S. Nuclear Primacy
By Keir A. Lieber and Daryl G. Press
From Foreign Affairs, March/April 2006

Summary: For four decades, relations among the major nuclear powers have been shaped by their common vulnerability, a condition known as mutual assured destruction. But with the U.S. arsenal growing rapidly while Russia's decays and China's stays small, the era of MAD is ending -- and the era of U.S. nuclear primacy has begun.

Keir A. Lieber, the author of War and the Engineers: The Primacy of Politics Over Technology, is Assistant Professor of Political Science at the University of Notre Dame. Daryl G. Press, the author of Calculating Credibility: How Leaders Assess Military Threats, is Associate Professor of Political Science at the University of Pennsylvania.

PRESENT AT THE DESTRUCTION
For almost half a century, the world's most powerful nuclear states have been locked in a military stalemate known as mutual assured destruction (MAD). By the early 1960s, the nuclear arsenals of the United States and the Soviet Union had grown so large and sophisticated that neither country could entirely destroy the other's retaliatory force by launching first, even with a surprise attack. Starting a nuclear war was therefore tantamount to committing suicide.
During the Cold War, many scholars and policy analysts believed that MAD made the world relatively stable and peaceful because it induced great caution in international politics, discouraged the use of nuclear threats to resolve disputes, and generally restrained the superpowers' behavior. (Revealingly, the last intense nuclear standoff, the 1962 Cuban missile crisis, occurred at the dawn of the era of MAD.) Because of the nuclear stalemate, the optimists argued, the era of intentional great-power wars had ended. Critics of MAD, however, argued that it prevented not great-power war but the rolling back of the power and influence of a dangerously expansionist and totalitarian Soviet Union. From that perspective, MAD prolonged the life of an evil empire.
This debate may now seem like ancient history, but it is actually more relevant than ever -- because the age of MAD is nearing an end. Today, for the first time in almost 50 years, the United States stands on the verge of attaining nuclear primacy. It will probably soon be possible for the United States to destroy the long-range nuclear arsenals of Russia or China with a first strike. This dramatic shift in the nuclear balance of power stems from a series of improvements in the United States' nuclear systems, the precipitous decline of Russia's arsenal, and the glacial pace of modernization of China's nuclear forces. Unless Washington's policies change or Moscow and Beijing take steps to increase the size and readiness of their forces, Russia and China -- and the rest of the world -- will live in the shadow of U.S. nuclear primacy for many years to come.
One's views on the implications of this change will depend on one's theoretical perspective. Hawks, who believe that the United States is a benevolent force in the world, will welcome the new nuclear era because they trust that U.S. dominance in both conventional and nuclear weapons will help deter aggression by other countries. For example, as U.S. nuclear primacy grows, China's leaders may act more cautiously on issues such as Taiwan, realizing that their vulnerable nuclear forces will not deter U.S. intervention -- and that Chinese nuclear threats could invite a U.S. strike on Beijing's arsenal. But doves, who oppose using nuclear threats to coerce other states and fear an emboldened and unconstrained United States, will worry. Nuclear primacy might lure Washington into more aggressive behavior, they argue, especially when combined with U.S. dominance in so many other dimensions of national power. Finally, a third group -- owls, who worry about the possibility of inadvertent conflict -- will fret that U.S. nuclear primacy could prompt other nuclear powers to adopt strategic postures, such as by giving control of nuclear weapons to lower-level commanders, that would make an unauthorized nuclear strike more likely -- thereby creating what strategic theorists call "crisis instability."

ARSENAL OF A DEMOCRACY
For 50 years, the Pentagon's war planners have structured the U.S. nuclear arsenal according to the goal of deterring a nuclear attack on the United States and, if necessary, winning a nuclear war by launching a preemptive strike that would destroy an enemy's nuclear forces. For these purposes, the United States relies on a nuclear triad comprising strategic bombers, intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs), and ballistic-missile-launching submarines (known as SSBNs). The triad reduces the odds that an enemy could destroy all U.S. nuclear forces in a single strike, even in a surprise attack, ensuring that the United States would be able to launch a devastating response. Such retaliation would only have to be able to destroy a large enough portion of the attacker's cities and industry to deter an attack in the first place. The same nuclear triad, however, could be used in an offensive attack against an adversary's nuclear forces. Stealth bombers might slip past enemy radar, submarines could fire their missiles from near the enemy's shore and so give the enemy's leaders almost no time to respond, and highly accurate land-based missiles could destroy even hardened silos that have been reinforced against attack and other targets that require a direct hit. The ability to destroy all of an adversary's nuclear forces, eliminating the possibility of a retaliatory strike, is known as a first-strike capability, or nuclear primacy.
The United States derived immense strategic benefits from its nuclear primacy during the early years of the Cold War, in terms of both crisis-bargaining advantages vis-à-vis the Soviet Union (for example, in the case of Berlin in the late 1950s and early 1960s) and planning for war against the Red Army in Europe. If the Soviets had invaded Western Europe in the 1950s, the United States intended to win World War III by immediately launching a massive nuclear strike on the Soviet Union, its Eastern European clients, and its Chinese ally. These plans were not the concoctions of midlevel Pentagon bureaucrats; they were approved by the highest level of the U.S. government.
U.S. nuclear primacy waned in the early 1960s, as the Soviets developed the capability to carry out a retaliatory second strike. With this development came the onset of MAD. Washington abandoned its strategy of a preemptive nuclear strike, but for the remainder of the Cold War, it struggled to escape MAD and reestablish its nuclear dominance. It expanded its nuclear arsenal, continuously improved the accuracy and the lethality of its weapons aimed at Soviet nuclear arms, targeted Soviet command-and-control systems, invested in missile-defense shields, sent attack submarines to trail Soviet SSBNs, and built increasingly accurate multiwarhead land- and submarine-launched ballistic missiles as well as stealth bombers and stealthy nuclear-armed cruise missiles. Equally unhappy with MAD, the Soviet Union also built a massive arsenal in the hope of gaining nuclear superiority. Neither side came close to gaining a first-strike capability, but it would be a mistake to dismiss the arms race as entirely irrational: both superpowers were well aware of the benefits of nuclear primacy, and neither was willing to risk falling behind.
Since the Cold War's end, the U.S. nuclear arsenal has significantly improved. The United States has replaced the ballistic missiles on its submarines with the substantially more accurate Trident II D-5 missiles, many of which carry new, larger-yield warheads. The U.S. Navy has shifted a greater proportion of its SSBNs to the Pacific so that they can patrol near the Chinese coast or in the blind spot of Russia's early warning radar network. The U.S. Air Force has finished equipping its B-52 bombers with nuclear-armed cruise missiles, which are probably invisible to Russian and Chinese air-defense radar. And the air force has also enhanced the avionics on its B-2 stealth bombers to permit them to fly at extremely low altitudes in order to avoid even the most sophisticated radar. Finally, although the air force finished dismantling its highly lethal MX missiles in 2005 to comply with arms control agreements, it is significantly improving its remaining ICBMs by installing the MX's high-yield warheads and advanced reentry vehicles on Minuteman ICBMs, and it has upgraded the Minuteman's guidance systems to match the MX's accuracy.

IMBALANCE OF TERROR
Even as the United States' nuclear forces have grown stronger since the end of the Cold War, Russia's strategic nuclear arsenal has sharply deteriorated. Russia has 39 percent fewer long-range bombers, 58 percent fewer ICBMs, and 80 percent fewer SSBNs than the Soviet Union fielded during its last days. The true extent of the Russian arsenal's decay, however, is much greater than these cuts suggest. What nuclear forces Russia retains are hardly ready for use. Russia's strategic bombers, now located at only two bases and thus vulnerable to a surprise attack, rarely conduct training exercises, and their warheads are stored off-base. Over 80 percent of Russia's silo-based ICBMs have exceeded their original service lives, and plans to replace them with new missiles have been stymied by failed tests and low rates of production. Russia's mobile ICBMs rarely patrol, and although they could fire their missiles from inside their bases if given sufficient warning of an attack, it appears unlikely that they would have the time to do so.
The third leg of Russia's nuclear triad has weakened the most. Since 2000, Russia's SSBNs have conducted approximately two patrols per year, down from 60 in 1990. (By contrast, the U.S. SSBN patrol rate today is about 40 per year.) Most of the time, all nine of Russia's ballistic missile submarines are sitting in port, where they make easy targets. Moreover, submarines require well-trained crews to be effective. Operating a ballistic missile submarine -- and silently coordinating its operations with surface ships and attack submarines to evade an enemy's forces -- is not simple. Without frequent patrols, the skills of Russian submariners, like the submarines themselves, are decaying. Revealingly, a 2004 test (attended by President Vladimir Putin) of several submarine-launched ballistic missiles was a total fiasco: all either failed to launch or veered off course. The fact that there were similar failures in the summer and fall of 2005 completes this unflattering picture of Russia's nuclear forces.
Compounding these problems, Russia's early warning system is a mess. Neither Soviet nor Russian satellites have ever been capable of reliably detecting missiles launched from U.S. submarines. (In a recent public statement, a top Russian general described his country's early warning satellite constellation as "hopelessly outdated.") Russian commanders instead rely on ground-based radar systems to detect incoming warheads from submarine-launched missiles. But the radar network has a gaping hole in its coverage that lies to the east of the country, toward the Pacific Ocean. If U.S. submarines were to fire missiles from areas in the Pacific, Russian leaders probably would not know of the attack until the warheads detonated. Russia's radar coverage of some areas in the North Atlantic is also spotty, providing only a few minutes of warning before the impact of submarine-launched warheads.
Moscow could try to reduce its vulnerability by finding the money to keep its submarines and mobile missiles dispersed. But that would be only a short-term fix. Russia has already extended the service life of its aging mobile ICBMs, something that it cannot do indefinitely, and its efforts to deploy new strategic weapons continue to flounder. The Russian navy's plan to launch a new class of ballistic missile submarines has fallen far behind schedule. It is now highly likely that not a single new submarine will be operational before 2008, and it is likely that none will be deployed until later.
Even as Russia's nuclear forces deteriorate, the United States is improving its ability to track submarines and mobile missiles, further eroding Russian military leaders' confidence in Russia's nuclear deterrent. (As early as 1998, these leaders publicly expressed doubts about the ability of Russia's ballistic missile submarines to evade U.S. detection.) Moreover, Moscow has announced plans to reduce its land-based ICBM force by another 35 percent by 2010; outside experts predict that the actual cuts will slice 50 to 75 percent off the current force, possibly leaving Russia with as few as 150 ICBMs by the end of the decade, down from its 1990 level of almost 1,300 missiles. The more Russia's nuclear arsenal shrinks, the easier it will become for the United States to carry out a first strike.
To determine how much the nuclear balance has changed since the Cold War, we ran a computer model of a hypothetical U.S. attack on Russia's nuclear arsenal using the standard unclassified formulas that defense analysts have used for decades. We assigned U.S. nuclear warheads to Russian targets on the basis of two criteria: the most accurate weapons were aimed at the hardest targets, and the fastest-arriving weapons at the Russian forces that can react most quickly. Because Russia is essentially blind to a submarine attack from the Pacific and would have great difficulty detecting the approach of low-flying stealthy nuclear-armed cruise missiles, we targeted each Russian weapon system with at least one submarine-based warhead or cruise missile. An attack organized in this manner would give Russian leaders virtually no warning.
This simple plan is presumably less effective than Washington's actual strategy, which the U.S. government has spent decades perfecting. The real U.S. war plan may call for first targeting Russia's command and control, sabotaging Russia's radar stations, or taking other preemptive measures -- all of which would make the actual U.S. force far more lethal than our model assumes.
According to our model, such a simplified surprise attack would have a good chance of destroying every Russian bomber base, submarine, and ICBM. [See Footnote #1] This finding is not based on best-case assumptions or an unrealistic scenario in which U.S. missiles perform perfectly and the warheads hit their targets without fail. Rather, we used standard assumptions to estimate the likely inaccuracy and unreliability of U.S. weapons systems. Moreover, our model indicates that all of Russia's strategic nuclear arsenal would still be destroyed even if U.S. weapons were 20 percent less accurate than we assumed, or if U.S. weapons were only 70 percent reliable, or if Russian ICBM silos were 50 percent "harder" (more reinforced, and hence more resistant to attack) than we expected. (Of course, the unclassified estimates we used may understate the capabilities of U.S. forces, making an attack even more likely to succeed.)
To be clear, this does not mean that a first strike by the United States would be guaranteed to work in reality; such an attack would entail many uncertainties. Nor, of course, does it mean that such a first strike is likely. But what our analysis suggests is profound: Russia's leaders can no longer count on a survivable nuclear deterrent. And unless they reverse course rapidly, Russia's vulnerability will only increase over time.
China's nuclear arsenal is even more vulnerable to a U.S. attack. A U.S. first strike could succeed whether it was launched as a surprise or in the midst of a crisis during a Chinese alert. China has a limited strategic nuclear arsenal. The People's Liberation Army currently possesses no modern SSBNs or long-range bombers. Its naval arm used to have two ballistic missile submarines, but one sank, and the other, which had such poor capabilities that it never left Chinese waters, is no longer operational. China's medium-range bomber force is similarly unimpressive: the bombers are obsolete and vulnerable to attack. According to unclassified U.S. government assessments, China's entire intercontinental nuclear arsenal consists of 18 stationary single-warhead ICBMs. These are not ready to launch on warning: their warheads are kept in storage and the missiles themselves are unfueled. (China's ICBMs use liquid fuel, which corrodes the missiles after 24 hours. Fueling them is estimated to take two hours.) The lack of an advanced early warning system adds to the vulnerability of the ICBMs. It appears that China would have no warning at all of a U.S. submarine-launched missile attack or a strike using hundreds of stealthy nuclear-armed cruise missiles.
Many sources claim that China is attempting to reduce the vulnerability of its ICBMs by building decoy silos. But decoys cannot provide a firm basis for deterrence. It would take close to a thousand fake silos to make a U.S. first strike on China as difficult as an attack on Russia, and no available information on China's nuclear forces suggests the existence of massive fields of decoys. And even if China built them, its commanders would always wonder whether U.S. sensors could distinguish real silos from fake ones.
Despite much talk about China's military modernization, the odds that Beijing will acquire a survivable nuclear deterrent in the next decade are slim. China's modernization efforts have focused on conventional forces, and the country's progress on nuclear modernization has accordingly been slow. Since the mid-1980s, China has been trying to develop a new missile for its future ballistic missile submarine as well as mobile ICBMs (the DF-31 and longer-range DF-31A) to replace its current ICBM force. The U.S. Defense Department predicts that China may deploy DF-31s in a few years, although the forecast should be treated skeptically: U.S. intelligence has been announcing the missile's imminent deployment for decades.
Even when they are eventually fielded, the DF-31s are unlikely to significantly reduce China's vulnerability. The missiles' limited range, estimated to be only 8,000 kilometers (4,970 miles), greatly restricts the area in which they can be hidden, reducing the difficulty of searching for them. The DF-31s could hit the contiguous United States only if they were deployed in China's far northeastern corner, principally in Heilongjiang Province, near the Russian-North Korean border. But Heilongjiang is mountainous, and so the missiles might be deployable only along a few hundred kilometers of good road or in a small plain in the center of the province. Such restrictions increase the missiles' vulnerability and raise questions about whether they are even intended to target the U.S. homeland or whether they will be aimed at targets in Russia and Asia.
Given the history of China's slow-motion nuclear modernization, it is doubtful that a Chinese second-strike force will materialize anytime soon. The United States has a first-strike capability against China today and should be able to maintain it for a decade or more.

INTELLIGENT DESIGN?
Is the United States intentionally pursuing nuclear primacy? Or is primacy an unintended byproduct of intra-Pentagon competition for budget share or of programs designed to counter new threats from terrorists and so-called rogue states? Motivations are always hard to pin down, but the weight of the evidence suggests that Washington is, in fact, deliberately seeking nuclear primacy. For one thing, U.S. leaders have always aspired to this goal. And the nature of the changes to the current arsenal and official rhetoric and policies support this conclusion.
The improvements to the U.S. nuclear arsenal offer evidence that the United States is actively seeking primacy. The navy, for example, is upgrading the fuse on the W-76 nuclear warhead, which sits atop most U.S. submarine-launched missiles. Currently, the warheads can be detonated only as air bursts well above ground, but the new fuse will also permit ground bursts (detonations at or very near ground level), which are ideal for attacking very hard targets such as ICBM silos. Another navy research program seeks to improve dramatically the accuracy of its submarine-launched missiles (already among the most accurate in the world). Even if these efforts fall short of their goals, any refinement in accuracy combined with the ground-burst fuses will multiply the missiles' lethality. Such improvements only make sense if the missiles are meant to destroy a large number of hard targets. And given that B-2s are already very stealthy aircraft, it is difficult to see how the air force could justify the increased risk of crashing them into the ground by having them fly at very low altitudes in order to avoid radar detection -- unless their mission is to penetrate a highly sophisticated air defense network such as Russia's or, perhaps in the future, China's.
During the Cold War, one explanation for the development of the nuclear arms race was that the rival military services' competition for budget share drove them to build ever more nuclear weapons. But the United States today is not achieving primacy by buying big-ticket platforms such as new SSBNs, bombers, or ICBMs. Current modernization programs involve incremental improvements to existing systems. The recycling of warheads and reentry vehicles from the air force's retired MX missiles (there are even reports that extra MX warheads may be put on navy submarine-launched missiles) is the sort of efficient use of resources that does not fit a theory based on parochial competition for increased funding. Rather than reflect organizational resource battles, these steps look like a coordinated set of programs to enhance the United States' nuclear first-strike capabilities.
Some may wonder whether U.S. nuclear modernization efforts are actually designed with terrorists or rogue states in mind. Given the United States' ongoing war on terror, and the continuing U.S. interest in destroying deeply buried bunkers (reflected in the Bush administration's efforts to develop new nuclear weapons to destroy underground targets), one might assume that the W-76 upgrades are designed to be used against targets such as rogue states' arsenals of weapons of mass destruction or terrorists holed up in caves. But this explanation does not add up. The United States already has more than a thousand nuclear warheads capable of attacking bunkers or caves. If the United States' nuclear modernization were really aimed at rogue states or terrorists, the country's nuclear force would not need the additional thousand ground-burst warheads it will gain from the W-76 modernization program. The current and future U.S. nuclear force, in other words, seems designed to carry out a preemptive disarming strike against Russia or China.
The intentional pursuit of nuclear primacy is, moreover, entirely consistent with the United States' declared policy of expanding its global dominance. The Bush administration's 2002 National Security Strategy explicitly states that the United States aims to establish military primacy: "Our forces will be strong enough to dissuade potential adversaries from pursuing a military build-up in hopes of surpassing, or equaling, the power of the United States." To this end, the United States is openly seeking primacy in every dimension of modern military technology, both in its conventional arsenal and in its nuclear forces.
Washington's pursuit of nuclear primacy helps explain its missile-defense strategy, for example. Critics of missile defense argue that a national missile shield, such as the prototype the United States has deployed in Alaska and California, would be easily overwhelmed by a cloud of warheads and decoys launched by Russia or China. They are right: even a multilayered system with land-, air-, sea-, and space-based elements, is highly unlikely to protect the United States from a major nuclear attack. But they are wrong to conclude that such a missile-defense system is therefore worthless -- as are the supporters of missile defense who argue that, for similar reasons, such a system could be of concern only to rogue states and terrorists and not to other major nuclear powers.
What both of these camps overlook is that the sort of missile defenses that the United States might plausibly deploy would be valuable primarily in an offensive context, not a defensive one -- as an adjunct to a U.S. first-strike capability, not as a standalone shield. If the United States launched a nuclear attack against Russia (or China), the targeted country would be left with a tiny surviving arsenal -- if any at all. At that point, even a relatively modest or inefficient missile-defense system might well be enough to protect against any retaliatory strikes, because the devastated enemy would have so few warheads and decoys left.
During the Cold War, Washington relied on its nuclear arsenal not only to deter nuclear strikes by its enemies but also to deter the Warsaw Pact from exploiting its conventional military superiority to attack Western Europe. It was primarily this latter mission that made Washington rule out promises of "no first use" of nuclear weapons. Now that such a mission is obsolete and the United States is beginning to regain nuclear primacy, however, Washington's continued refusal to eschew a first strike and the country's development of a limited missile-defense capability take on a new, and possibly more menacing, look. The most logical conclusions to make are that a nuclear-war-fighting capability remains a key component of the United States' military doctrine and that nuclear primacy remains a goal of the United States.

STOP WORRYING AND LOVE THE BOMB?
During the Cold War, MAD rendered the debate about the wisdom of nuclear primacy little more than a theoretical exercise. Now that MAD and the awkward equilibrium it maintained are about to be upset, the argument has become deadly serious. Hawks will undoubtedly see the advent of U.S. nuclear primacy as a positive development. For them, MAD was regrettable because it left the United States vulnerable to nuclear attack. With the passing of MAD, they argue, Washington will have what strategists refer to as "escalation dominance" -- the ability to win a war at any level of violence -- and will thus be better positioned to check the ambitions of dangerous states such as China, North Korea, and Iran. Doves, on the other hand, are fearful of a world in which the United States feels free to threaten -- and perhaps even use -- force in pursuit of its foreign policy goals. In their view, nuclear weapons can produce peace and stability only when all nuclear powers are equally vulnerable. Owls worry that nuclear primacy will cause destabilizing reactions on the part of other governments regardless of the United States' intentions. They assume that Russia and China will work furiously to reduce their vulnerability by building more missiles, submarines, and bombers; putting more warheads on each weapon; keeping their nuclear forces on higher peacetime levels of alert; and adopting hair-trigger retaliatory policies. If Russia and China take these steps, owls argue, the risk of accidental, unauthorized, or even intentional nuclear war -- especially during moments of crisis -- may climb to levels not seen for decades.
Ultimately, the wisdom of pursuing nuclear primacy must be evaluated in the context of the United States' foreign policy goals. The United States is now seeking to maintain its global preeminence, which the Bush administration defines as the ability to stave off the emergence of a peer competitor and prevent weaker countries from being able to challenge the United States in critical regions such as the Persian Gulf. If Washington continues to believe such preeminence is necessary for its security, then the benefits of nuclear primacy might exceed the risks. But if the United States adopts a more restrained foreign policy -- for example, one premised on greater skepticism of the wisdom of forcibly exporting democracy, launching military strikes to prevent the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction, and aggressively checking rising challengers -- then the benefits of nuclear primacy will be trumped by the dangers.

[Footnote #1] We develop our argument further in "The End of MAD? The Nuclear Dimension of U.S. Primacy," International Security 30, no. 4 (Spring 2006).

terça-feira, junho 06, 2006

97) A China tem um pequeno problema bancário...

Bem, nao sei se pequeno, porque tudo lá é grande. Deve ser do tamamho da China, digamos algo como 500 ou 600 bilhões de dólares, um quase um PIB brasileiro (ou as próprias reservas da China).
Vejamos este informe, de 06.06.06, do Stratfor, uma instituição de inteligência analítica (o que isso queira dizer):

An Inflection Point In China's Banking Problem
By George Friedman

The month of May witnessed an interesting phenomenon: a spate of reports on China's nonperforming-loan problem. What is most intriguing is that these reports did not come from organizations like Stratfor -- minor outfits that have been talking about this for a couple of years. It came from real, solid, serious mainstream organizations that were, and continue to be in some cases, quite positive about China on the whole. What is important here is not that China has a serious problem with bad loans in its banking system. That's old news. What is important is that mainstream analysts in the West now are taking official notice of it. The wide divergence between the Western perception of Chinese economic health and the realities of China's economy is beginning to close. There will be consequences to that.

The first report came from Ernst & Young, which released a study saying that China had a substantial problem with nonperforming loans (NPLs). We have to confess to not having seen that report, because the accounting firm withdrew it a few days later. The Chinese government blasted the report, using words like "ridiculous" and "distorted." Ernst & Young, which has a substantial practice in China, denied having retracted the report because of pressure from the government. Whatever their reasons for doing so, we wish we had been faster in asking for a copy.

No matter, because May also brought studies on the same subject from PricewaterhouseCoopers (PWC), McKinsey Global Institute, and Fitch. Each said the same basic thing: that Chinese banks have enormous NPL numbers on their books. The PWC report was issued by a group within the company that specializes in making markets in NPLs. Their news was that the water in China was fine and everyone should come in. McKinsey focused on inefficiencies in the Chinese banking system that should be cleared up, so that NPLs could decline and the Chinese gross domestic product could surge. Fitch was the harshest of the three, but that firm also argued that the Chinese had the tools in place to handle the problem. The bottom line was that all three acknowledged that NPLs were a big issue for China, but they took different approaches in trying to put the problem in perspective. In other words, they gave a warning without yelling "Fire!" Some of the reports were criticized by the Chinese, but none were blasted. Meanwhile, Moody's Investors Service has told us that they will be releasing a report in a couple of weeks. It will be interesting to see what their take is.

Let's begin this analysis by looking at a couple of quotes from these reports. McKinsey, for example, writes:

"Underlying these reforms, however, is capital misallocation by the system. Nonperforming loans are the most conspicuous outcome of this misallocation, but our research shows that the much larger volume of loans to underperforming ventures that don't go bad but yield only negligible returns are potentially more costly to China's economy."

Fitch's report states:

"Summing all of these figures, we come up with total official nonperforming loans of US$206 bn and other estimated problem loans of over US$270 bn in the banking system. We would reiterate, however, that a large portion of this latter figure is comprised of estimated Special Mention loans or loans that currently are not classified as nonperforming [emphasis Fitch's]. At the same time, there is an additional US$197 bn in NPL carveouts still remaining on the balance sheets of China's asset management companies, which no longer represent direct losses for banks but are a future liability for the government."

Fitch also states:

"Beyond this, estimating a rate of flow of new nonperforming loans is not an easy exercise given Chinese banks' extremely weak historical data and ongoing deficiencies in accounting and disclosure. Few banks report data on NPL flows, and those that do show recent flow rates in the extremely low single digits. We believe these numbers understate the likely level of ultimate credit losses, given what we know to be the slow evolution of a strong credit culture and risk management practices and our suspicion that China's over-reliance on investment-led growth comes at a cost to bank credit quality."

Fitch is estimating China's bad-loan situation (our term, lumping all these categories together) at $673 billion, but it warns that -- given Chinese accounting and reporting, and the fact that what reporting exists is not credible -- $673 billion is a low number. That's important. If $673 billion was the final number, then measures that are put in place could limit the ultimate losses to a level below that figure. If, however, the total number of bad loans is substantially higher than $673 billion -- which is our view of the situation -- then the system would be lucky to have to write off only this amount.

There are numerous ways to measure the magnitude of the problem, but one of the simplest is this. China is said to hold nearly $819 billion in foreign reserves. Fitch's conservative estimate of the bad loan situation comes close to matching that number, and a more liberal calculation would swallow those reserves up and then some. Put very simply, the Chinese banking system is in deep trouble -- and with it, so is the Chinese economy.

It has become an article of faith that China's economy is booming. The economy certainly is growing rapidly. But growth and size alone don't tell you how healthy an economic entity is. During the Great Depression, the U.S. economy was enormous, but it was crippled. Japan's economy was growing at a phenomenal rate in the 1980s, all the while heading for its disaster. Size and growth are but two measures of an economy -- or of a business. They do not tell you how well it is doing.

The basic problem of the Chinese economy, as in many Asian nations, is that the banks have not made loans with business considerations in mind. They made loans for political reasons and to maintain social stability. In many cases, loans were seen as being more like grants. As a result, they were invested in enterprises that did not make enough money to repay (or even attempt to repay) the loans. Frequently, rather than bankrupting the business or writing off the loan, the banks lent more money to the business -- so that it could repay old debts, and there was an appearance that the loans were viable. Loans went into land speculation or to investments in areas that were already overbuilt. (And this does not attempt to take into account ancillary problems, such as corruption and embezzlement, which also have been significant issues for the Chinese government.)

In the first part of 2006, there has been a huge surge in lending in China. With the economy already growing at rates of more than 9 percent, it would seem structurally impossible to grow it any faster. Shortages in skilled workers, management, buildings -- all these limit the rate of growth. The truth is that a substantial portion of the loans that went out were issued to keep bad loans floating, like using one credit card to pay the monthly payment on another. You can do that for a while, but you can't do it forever.

What keeps the Chinese system alive is not domestic consumption, which is not rising in tandem with overall growth. What keeps China afloat is exports -- exports in ever greater numbers, and with ever-smaller profit margins. Surging exports are critical to China, as they were to Japan before it. They generate the cash that allows the financial system to continue operating.

This is also the Achilles' heel of the Chinese economy, as Fitch points out:

"Given the weaknesses already discussed, we believe Chinese banks remain acutely vulnerable to an economic slowdown, although the analysis above recognizes that much work has been done to tackle these weaknesses and at a minimum suggests that Chinese banks and the government are more equipped today than in the past to deal with problems that may arise."

Here is the problem. The official policy of the Chinese government is to cool off the economy. In fact, the Chinese are attempting to cool growth only in certain sectors, where they perceive particularly dangerous bubbles starting to form. For the most part, however, they are doing everything they can to keep the economy hot, in order to try to manage the financial problem. Now, Fitch argues in its report that the Chinese banks are better equipped than in the past to deal with their problems. We agree with that assessment; they were completely unprepared in the past and now are abysmally prepared. You cannot prepare to deal with a loan situation as bad as that in China. You simply keep cycling as fast as possible and hope that something turns up.

In our view, this spate of reports on China's financial situation marks a turning point.

One of the things that has kept the Chinese economy booming was cheap exports. But another was the perception in the West that, underneath it all, China was sound. This perception induced foreign banks to invest in Chinese banks. There have, of course, been studies detailing the Chinese debt problem for some time: Standard & Poor's, for example, estimated the bad debt in 2002 at $600 million. That part isn't new.

However, when "irrational exuberance" (to quote Alan Greenspan) is at its peak, it is hard to break through the noise. Markets continue to rise, even as bad news comes out. Last week, for example, we saw the Bank of China make its initial public offering and shares soar, just as these financial reports were emerging. That doesn't mean these reports are wrong or that the Chinese have things under control. It simply means the market is ignoring news and rising on its own giddiness.

Nevertheless, a turning point has been reached that will be difficult to ignore. Reports from Stratfor are, of course, one thing. Reports from a single credit agency are another. But when a series of reports from highly respected, mainstream analysts all come out within a few days of each other -- with each, in their own way, telling the same basic story, it becomes hard for the system to dismiss that. Western companies moving into China have CEOs and CFOs who must exercise due diligence. There are now too many reports out there to be simply ignored. All of them are caveated. None of them write China off. But a critical mass is forming that will cut through the froth in due course.

Obviously, this does not mean that China will implode, disappear or anything like that. It will remain an enormous economy and an important one. But this does mean that the dynamics of the Chinese economy are shifting. The debt issue represents a deep structural problem that China will either deal with -- as South Korea did -- or not, as Japan did not. (Japan reaped more than a decade of economic stagnation as a consequence. It is significant that China lacks the degree of insulation that Japan built up; the economy has more external exposures and would not weather a similar crisis as well.) The point is that, ultimately, the books have to balance everywhere. That means that the huge structural imbalance of China, which these debts represent, must be rectified. And that process, as in all such matters, will be painful.

It is not clear how much pain Chinese society can withstand before it fractures. This is clearly a concern for Beijing as it tries, simultaneously, to reform the economy and to crack down on dissent. The Chinese, like anyone in this fix, try to put the best possible face on the situation. Which is why they exploded at Ernst & Young. But even the government in Beijing couldn't shout down the ensuing tidal wave of financial reports; instead, they grumbled and pointed to the passages that said it could all be managed.

Perhaps it can. But if it can, it won't be easy -- and we doubt that it is possible. We have been writing about this problem for several years now, and people keep asking when the crisis will come. Our answer is simple: If this isn't a crisis, what would a crisis look like? The Chinese financial system is sinking under nonperforming and underperforming loans. Mainstream Western analysts are all writing about the problem and calling for reforms that the Chinese cannot possibly implement in time to make a difference. At some point, the weight of evidence will shift the behavior of the Western financial community, and that will be that.

In the meantime, let the exports flow -- for they surely will, and in breathtaking quantities.
Send questions or comments on this article to analysis@stratfor.com.

segunda-feira, junho 05, 2006

96) Bota bonito nisso... (futebol brasileiro, claro...)

Most Bonito
By JOHN CARLIN
Published: June 4, 2006
The New York Times

You look at Ronaldinho, the world's most talented and lethal soccer player, and what you see is the smiling epitome of Brazil's culture of pleasure. You look at John Terry and you have a deeper understanding of how it was that a small island nation once conquered half the known world. Terry - the captain of the English Premier League champions, Chelsea, and pillar of his national team's defense - has the height, the bulk and the air of cold command of the red-coated British sergeant who in days of empire instilled terror in his troops and enemy forces alike.
When the two went head-to-head in a game earlier this year, it was more than a clash between two different ways of playing soccer, of approaching life; it was the proverbial case, or so it seemed, of the unstoppable force meeting the immovable object.

It happened in March, at a critical moment in last season's clash of European titans, Ronaldinho's Barcelona against Chelsea, in the round of
16 in the Champions League tournament, club soccer's biggest competition. The score was 0-0, and 12 minutes were left in the game.
Ronaldinho received the ball in the center of midfield, 15 yards from the Chelsea penalty area. Around him were four Chelsea defenders.
Ronaldinho left one of them for dead and avoided two more. The fourth, the last man standing between him and glory, was John Terry.
Ronaldinho's response was to do what he does better than anybody else:
the unthinkable. Having mesmerized the Chelsea ranks with the speed of his feet and the swerve of his dancing hips, he met brute force with brute force - and won. He shouldered the English Goliath - perfectly fairly - to the ground. And it was from this abject vantage that London's finest looked on, a picture of defeat, as the samba-loving Brazilian whipped the ball low and true, past the Chelsea goalkeeper and into the net. That electric sequence of events - barely four seconds elapsed between Ronaldinho's receiving and dispatching of the ball - captured, for the watching millions, one of soccer's great truisms: the English invented the game, but the Brazilians perfected it. They found the game brick and left it marble. They patented what has become known the world over as jogo bonito, the beautiful game, a style of soccer that combines exuberance with success and that Ronaldinho, more than any other player alive, embodies. People respect winners, they admire them, but they don't always love them. The bright, canary-yellow shirt of the Brazilian national team - the canarinho shirt, they fondly call it in Brazil - elicits feelings in soccer fans everywhere that unite reverence for Brazil's unquestioned supremacy (it has won the World Cup, held every four years, five times in the last half century) with an affection, a warm sense of personal ownership, that transcends the sport's inherent tribalism. Every neutral fan following this month's World Cup will want Brazil to win, and every soccer-lover with a national stake in the competition will have Brazil as his second team.
Soccer is the world's biggest religion, cutting across race, faith, geography, ideology and gender like no other global phenomenon. Brazil is the religion's favorite church.

Why the love? Some of it comes from the fact that Brazil is a country without enemies. That a defeat at home to Uruguay in the World Cup final in 1950 still ranks, in all seriousness, as one of the greatest tragedies in Brazilian history bespeaks a nation without much of a war-making tradition. Brazilians prefer a rip-roaring carnival. More important, perhaps, is the appearance of racial harmony that Brazil's national team projects. Some players are black, some are white, but usually they are a blend of the two, the shades and shapes representing the range of types that come from the Amazon basin, from West Africa and from the European countries that have contributed so much to the genetic
cocktail: Portugal, Italy and Germany. The first superstar of Brazilian soccer was the green-eyed, curly-haired Arthur Friedenreich, who scored the winning goal in a celebrated 1-0 victory over Uruguay in 1919.
Racial stereotypes - blacks are more graceful, say, or whites more tenacious - break down. Ask any Brazilian who, in terms of pure skill, was the greatest Brazilian player ever, and chances are he'll be torn between the competing claims of the brown-skinned Garrincha and the blond Zico.

All this would be of merely anecdotal interest, however, were the Brazilians not so darn good. For the first six decades after the arrival in 1894 of soccer's first evangelist in Brazil, a handlebar-mustachioed British gent by the name of Charles Miller, Brazilian soccer made few waves beyond Latin American shores. But then, in 1958, when the World Cup was held in Sweden, Brazil's impact on the competition was seismic.
Thanks to grainy black-and-white images still replayed on TV today, the aftershocks of a goal scored in the final by a 17-year-old named Pelé, a spindly unknown, continue to deliver their timeless thrill. What Pelé did no one had ever seen before. Wearing the clumpy boots of the era, he flicked the heavy leather ball used in those days over the head of a towering Swedish defender, spun around him, got to the ball before it touched the ground and drilled it, on the volley, into the net.

Brazil also won the next World Cup, held in Chile. This time Pelé was out injured most of the tournament and Garrincha was the star of the show. The Uruguayan writer Eduardo Galeano says of Garrincha, in a lyrical little book titled "Soccer in Sun and Shadow," that "in the entire history of football no one made more people happy." Partly deformed from birth by polio (one leg was shorter than the other and both were bent like bows), he possessed such genius with a ball at his feet that each game he played became, as Galeano writes, "a circus ... a party." Clown and juggler at the same time, he entrenched the myth
- so much a part of the Brazilian legend - that in his country people play soccer less for victory than for fun.

Brazil's apotheosis, and Pelé's, came in the 1970 World Cup in Mexico.
The consensus is absolute among soccer's intelligentsia that this was the greatest team ever to grace the game. Some debate lingers as to who was the greater player, Pelé or Diego Maradona (who would win the World Cup with - or rather, for - Argentina in 1986, also in Mexico). But no one questions the pre-eminence - the peerless combination of flamboyance and effectiveness - of that 1970 Brazil team, with its supporting stars like Jairzinho, Rivelino, Gérson and Tostão. A lean period followed: it would be 24 years before Brazil won the World Cup again. But such was the power of the spell cast by that triple-winning Pelé team that the legend not only remained alive but, as legends do, flourished. It didn't matter how strong or weak they looked on paper, no team ever got the pulse racing the way the canary-shirted Brazilians did. Then in 1994, led by Romário, Brazil resumed its dominance by winning the World Cup in the United States. Brazil lost in the final against France in Paris in 1998, but then won again in Yokohama in 2002 as the unstoppable onslaught of "the three R's" - Rivaldo, Ronaldo and Ronaldinho - swept all before them.

This time around Brazil is again the favorite to win, on rational as well as sentimental grounds. A 4-1 crushing of Argentina (a two-time World Cup winner and always among the favorites) in a tournament in Germany last summer has lent force to an idea that has been building since 2002: that Brazil would not only win again, but do so in a fashion not seen since 1970. Ronaldo, the game's most admired striker in recent years and three times the winner of the FIFA World Player of the Year award (voted on by all the national-team coaches and captains), is back.
So is Cafu, the captain, and Roberto Carlos, the most offensive-minded left back in the history of the game and the one with the most thunderous shot. Three new young superstars have emerged: Adriano, a bull of a man up front with the touch of a ballerina; Kaká, a midfielder who glides over the grass like Gene Kelly; and the young Robinho, small and doe-like but reckoned by many in Brazil to be a Pelé in the making.
And, most exciting of all, this year's team has Ronaldinho, the reigning two-time winner of World Player of the Year and winner of the no-less-prestigious European Footballer of the Year prize last November.
In May, he led Barcelona to its second consecutive La Liga title in Spain and to European victory in the Champions League.

Whatever happens at this World Cup (and there are some who worry about the aging legs of Ronaldo, Roberto Carlos and Cafu), Ronaldo de Assis Moreira, an attacking midfielder known to everyone as Ronaldinho, has already done more than enough not only to keep the Brazilian legend alive but also to breathe new life into it. Not so much because of what he has achieved (an enormous amount for a player who just turned 26), but because of the manner in which he has done it. Like Pelé, he scores sublime goals, and lots of them; he is arguably the world's best and most penetrating passer, the master of the assist; he may be unequaled in the dominion he exerts over the ball. On top of all that, he plays with a big smile on his face, even when he misses a shot. Whereas so many professionals in every sport seem to carry the world's worries on their faces as they play, Ronaldinho radiates the fun of a carefree 8-year-old boy. Which happens to be how old he was when his father suffered a heart attack in a swimming pool and drowned. After that shock, which he has never forgotten (following every goal he scores, he looks up to heaven and points a finger that says, "For you, Dad"), Ronaldinho might be excused were he introverted or morose. Yet he seems the exact opposite.

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He is courteous, too - one of those "After you," "No, after you" types - and seems to have few of the airs and graces one might expect of a regular superstar, to say nothing of the most globally celebrated sportsman alive. He does not strut so much as shuffle, and when asked to describe that goal during which he sent John Terry tumbling to the ground, he gracefully makes excuses for the Englishman. "I had the good fortune to be coming at him having built up some speed, while he was moving from a standing position," he says, "so I had a big advantage."

While proudly Brazilian - "I just love the way we play the game!" - Ronaldinho acknowledges a debt to Europe, whose faster, more aggressive style of play has obliged him to become a more complete, "much stronger"
athlete physically. (And a lot richer: Brazil is a dynamic and sensual country, but also a poor one - in Europe, players can earn 5 or 10 times more money than they can in Brazil.) Still, Brazil provides an edge, in Ronaldinho's view, in the extra degree of obsessiveness with which soccer permeates national life. "It doesn't matter where you go in Brazil, it doesn't matter where you look, there are people playing football. All day and all night, children with children, fathers with their sons, grandfathers with their grandchildren, adults with adults, women or men - everybody, everywhere. And if they're not playing with a ball, they'll be playing with a soft-drink can."

Yet there does seem to be some essential characteristic, something more than mere quantity, that distinguishes Brazilian soccer from that played by everyone else. Juca Kfouri, a leading TV and newspaper commentator in Brazil, likes to compare Brazilian soccer with the English original. The latter, he says, "is more tactical, more disciplined, more rigidly adhering to the rules the coach imposes. In Brazil, methods exist in order to be dismantled. That is why, when Brazil and England have played, Brazil almost always wins by scoring goals that are not out of the book, goals that come as a complete surprise."

Tostão, who played with Pelé on Brazil's team in 1970 (beating England along the way), is a huge fan of Ronaldinho, and he agrees with Kfouri that what sets Brazilian soccer above the rest is what he calls its "daring" imagination.

"Globalization has obviously impacted on soccer, too," says Tostão, who is now Brazil's most respected sports newspaper columnist. "Strategy and tactics are practically the same the world over. In that sense, soccer has become more like basketball. Even in terms of sheer skill, the difference is not all that great between one country and another. And good technique can be taught. Look at a player like Zidane," he explains, referring to Zinédine Zidane, the midfielder for Real Madrid and the French national team. He has as much ability on the ball as any Brazilian. That is why, Tostào says, the difference lies in the mind.
"Brazilian soccer has more of the imponderable about it. There is more variation in the Brazilian game than in the European one. Brazilian players have more of the magic of invention."

The English team captain, David Beckham, Tostão suggests, has the skill to do what a Brazilian player might, but he doesn't because he is trapped in his English cultural mind-set. He cannot tap into what Tostão says is "the imaginative unconscious of Brazilian football, transmitted down from one generation to the next."

That collective unconscious is what Ronaldinho perhaps refers to, without quite articulating it that way, when he addresses the conundrum of how it is that all of the top Brazilians play in Europe yet somehow contrive to function as a team when they put on the canarinho shirt. "We left Brazil young but remained there till we were at least 15, usually more," he says. "So we all served the same apprenticeship, and when we meet in the national team, there is an ease of understanding. Also, to be in the Brazil team you have to play football of very high quality, and when you play with people so good, the game becomes easy and things work out naturally." (Ronaldinho is determined, however, as is Tostão, to dispel the myth that Brazilian players are so naturally gifted that victory comes easily to them, no sweat or discipline required. "It's an absolute myth," Tostão says. "We play a collective game, as disciplined as anybody else's." Ronaldinho says: "We prepare for a game a lot more than people imagine. People think that we run out on the pitch, all laughter and joy, and then it's goal, goal, goal.
No.")

Ronaldinho may get close to the secret of Brazilian soccer - the alliance of discipline and skill with superior imagination - when he explains his role with the team. "When I train," he says, "one of the things I concentrate on is creating a mental picture of how best to deliver that ball to a teammate, preferably leaving him alone in front of the rival goalkeeper. So what I do, always before a game - always, every night and every day - is try and think up things, imagine plays, which no one else will have thought of, and to do so always bearing in mind the particular strengths of each teammate to whom I am passing the ball. When I construct those plays in my mind, I take into account whether one teammate likes to receive the ball at his feet or ahead of him, if he's good with his head and how he prefers to head the ball, if he's stronger on his right or his left foot. That's my job. That is what I do. I imagine the game."

Ronaldinho imagines the game so well that something is happening in the world of soccer that would have seemed unthinkable 10, 5 or even 2 years ago. People are beginning to wonder whether Ronaldinho may be worthy of mention in the same breath as the holy twosome of Pelé and Maradona.
"The big polemic is already on here in Brazil," Kfouri says, "and older guys of my generation, we resist making that comparison, naturally. But you know what? There is no way of avoiding it - Ronaldinho is reinventing football. He is the most creative, most entertaining player we've seen anywhere in years." Maradona himself said much the same thing in an interview with the Spanish daily Sport. "It's impressive how Ronaldinho can combine both technique and speed," the Argentine said.
"It's only possible because he has a privileged mind. He's such a quick thinker. He knows what he's going to do before the ball gets to him. ...
He's a show on his own."

Indeed, he's such a one-man show that, Kfouri points out, Tostão caused a great flutter in the soccer world when he asked in a recent column in Brazil's biggest newspaper, Folha de S. Paulo, whether Ronaldinho might be placed on the highest pedestal of all. It was a momentous thought, and mildly shocking, coming from a man who had had the good fortune to play in the Brazil forward line 36 years ago alongside the player known ever since in Brazil as O Rei - the King.

"Yes," Tostão admits, "I have raised this question. I have made the point that in 2002 Ronaldinho was as important a player as any in the Brazil team, and yet today he is more of a footballer than he was then.
Look, I played with Pelé. Pelé has always been the greatest for me. And I believe Ronaldinho is still beneath him, but - "

But that goal against Chelsea? That triumph of Brazilian poetry over English prose? Wouldn't Pelé have been proud of that? "Yes. But it's not just the goals Ronaldinho scores. It's those passes he lays on a plate for his teammates. He knocked a great Milan team out in the semifinal of the Champions League that way, delivering a magically weighted assist.
His passing is as decisive as his goals are.

"Yes," Tostão continues, pensive, hesitant, flirting with a heresy, "it is possible. Who knows? A year from now, we could be saying that Ronaldinho is as good as Pelé was."
_________________________________

John Carlin is a senior writer for El País and the author most recently of "White Angels: Beckham, Real Madrid and the New Football."

95) Sonhando com a revolucao...

Recebi (eu recebo coisas de todo lado, da extrema esquerda aos grupos liberais mais libertários), de um desses revolucionários que acha que a revolução já está batendo na porta, e que só falta abrir para cair numa farra semelhante à da Comuna de Paris (1871) ou de Petrogrado (1917), uma carta aberta.
Transcrevo aqui, com pequenos comentários finais, mas creio que, havendo tempo, esse documento altamente surrealista mereceria alguma análise mais detida.
Não tenho nenhuma ilusão de que esse tipo de pessoal venha a mudar de idéia, mas é que sempre gosto de provocar gente que se anima a "pensar" (não sei se é o termo) e a escrever (eu também sou companheiro de viagem, pelo menos na arte da escrita).


Vejamos a brilhante peça revolucionária:

Carta aberta ao PSTU / favor divulgar

On 28/05/2006, at 23:29, sergio lessa wrote:
Carta aos camaradas do PSTU
Sergio Lessa

Não vivemos uma situação pré-revolucionária. Ao contrário, os inúmeros conflitos sociais dos nossos diais, são antes manifestações do caráter imanentemente conflituoso do capitalismo do que uma crise revolucionária que se aproxima. Por isso, as explosões e lutas mais intensas e explosivas que assistimos na América Latina e no resto do mundo tendem a soluções assimiláveis à sociedade burguesa e não à ruptura do sistema do capital. Argentina, Bolívia, Venezuela, Equador, França, etc., são exemplos do que nos referimos: neste período contra-revolucionário, a vitória do capital agudiza as contradições sociais e pode gerar graves e agudos conflitos. Estes, todavia, isolados, ainda não são capazes de romper o sistema do capital e são absorvidos, de um modo ou de outro, pelo próprio capitalismo. Esta situação pode se alterar mais ou menos rapidamente; todavia, até o momento não há qualquer indício que caminhamos para uma crise revolucionária – isto é, para a passagem do modo de produção capitalista para o modo de produção comunista (pois é este, e nenhum outro, o significado histórico da revolução hoje possível).

Nestas circunstâncias históricas, o acúmulo de forças revolucionárias ocorre de forma lenta e ao redor da propaganda (no sentido leniniano, muitas e aprofundadas idéias para poucas pessoas) dos objetivos estratégicos revolucionários: a plataforma máxima do comunismo. Se a experiência do século passado deveria ter ensinado algo aos revolucionários, é que sacrificar a teoria e a propaganda dos objetivos estratégicos em nome da ampliação da influência e do crescimento do número de militantes é um vitória de Pirro. O partido cresce e aumenta seu peso eleitoral, todavia ao custo de abrir mão de seu caráter revolucionário e de atrair para suas fileiras militantes cuja concepção de mundo é reformista.

Um século de tragédia da social-democracia e do stalinismo é mais do que suficiente para termos todos aprendido que na luta revolucionária não há atalhos e a via mais rápida ao crescimento é quase sempre, também, a via de menor resistência de integração ao sistema do capital. Por esta via chegou-se, inúmeras vezes, não à revolução, mas à conversão dos revolucionários em reformistas.

O que está ocorrendo com o PSTU?

Há já algum tempo o PSTU aderiu às ações afirmativas e definiu sua posição favorável à política de cotas. As cotas nada mais são que o racismo simétrico ao racismo dominante. O governo, por exemplo, destrói as escolas públicas dificultando o acesso dos trabalhadores à educação superior. A saída das cotas não é a reversão desta tendência pela reconstrução do ensino público e por uma política de acesso universal às universidades, mas o privilégio do acesso através de cotas de alguns trabalhadores negros (ou índios, ou amarelos, etc.). O que torna um trabalhador negro diferente de um trabalhador branco é apenas a cor da pele, e levemos isto em consideração na concessão de um "privilégio" (já que não há vagas para todos os trabalhadores) e nada mais teremos que o racismo.

Apoiar as cotas, além disso, é estimular a divisão dos, como dizem, "excluídos", pela cor da pele. Os indivíduos passam a se diferenciar pela raça, velando as oposições (estas sim fundamentais) das classes sociais!

Claro que os dirigentes PSTU sabem disso – estamos, aqui, chovendo no molhado. Contudo, o que fez o PSTU apoiar as cotas senão a idéia de que assim atrairia o movimento das minorias? E isto, de fato, é assim: atraiu para si os partidários da nova expressão do racismo, sempre conservador em sua essência, na mesma proporção em que diminuiu a sua capacidade de elevar a consciência dos trabalhadores também pela crítica certeira, precisa e honesta destes equívocos ideológicos. Ao apoiar as cotas, ficou o PSTU impossibilitado de ocupar a vanguarda na luta ideológica contra esta nova forma de conservadorismo que são as "ações afirmativas".

No segundo turno das eleições de 2002, o PSTU, para mim surpreendentemente, recomendou o voto em Lula. Depois de todas as corretas críticas que fez ao PT, sugerir o voto em Lula foi um contra-senso. E a justificativa (era um modo de atrair as forças à esquerda do PT) se revelou equivocada: quantos vieram ao PSTU como resultado desta tática? O resultado foi o inverso: Lula se fortaleceu politicamente porque até mesmo um partido de esquerda como o PSTU manifestou apoio a ele no momento decisivo do segundo turno.

Agora, no programa proposto para a Frente Classista com o PSOL e o PCB, defende o não pagamento da dívida "para os grandes credores”! Significaria isto que estaria ele reconhecendo a "legitimidade" da dívida do país para com os pequenos e médios burgueses?

Na luta de idéias, cabe aos revolucionários a expressão radical (isto é, pelas raízes) das contradições sociais. Quando não o fazemos, cedemos terreno à ideologia dominante. Queiramos ou não, a ambigüidade e a imprecisão sempre são favoráveis à ideologia burguesa.

Quais os equívocos da proposta de uma Frente Classista com o PSOL?

Pela sua gênese social e política, o PSOL só pode fazer uma crítica incompleta e superficial ao PT. No fundo, apostam que com as mesmas concepções mas com pessoas diferentes as coisas terão outro rumo. Mera ilusão! O problema decisivo da tragédia petista está em suas concepções ideológicas e no papel que tais idéias podem exercer no atual momento histórico. Lula, de líder metalúrgico apodreceu no parlamento; Heloisa Helena e o PSOL pretendem partir do Congresso Nacional para conquistar as massas. Da tragédia a uma ilusão que tem muito de farsa.

Imaginar que "impondo" uma "plataforma classista" e um vice à candidatura de Heloísa Helena seria o suficiente para alterar esta determinação de classe do PSOL é um equívoco. O PSOL apenas pode crescer na sombra da "traição da camarilha dirigente do PT", ele só pode existir enquanto "resgate do PT original". E, por isso, ao apoiar a candidatura Heloísa Helena (ainda que "condicionalmente") o PSTU de fato e na prática apóia o PSOL.

Por esta razão, a proposta de uma Frente Classista (que nos dias em que escrevo está naufragando pela opção à direita do PSOL), foi um enorme equívoco. Aproxima o PSTU ao reformismo sob a ilusão de que seria possível tensionar o reformismo do PSOL. E o PSOL em troca, só sai ganhando. Por um lado, porque recebeu o respaldo da autoridade conquistada pelo PSTU até agora na luta contra o sistema do capital. E, depois, porque conseguiu que o PSTU tivesse que maneirar as suas críticas ao reformismo do PSOL e, após abandonada a proposta de frente classista, que todas as críticas possam ser enfrentadas alegando-se ser a dor de cotovelo pelo PSTU ter perdido o posto de vice-presidente para a Consulta Popular.

Além do mais, quando a ruptura se tornar inevitável (e se tornará no curto prazo), e for forçoso tornar pública a denúncia do caráter "petista" do PSOL, como justificar esta proposta de uma frente "classista" com representantes de uma concepção que é, objetivamente, uma traição à revolução?

A proposta de frente classista foi um equívoco: serve mais ao reformismo que às forças revolucionárias.

O que fazer em 2006?

Há um argumento do PSTU contra o voto nulo nestas eleições que é correto: enquanto houver ilusões eleitorais entre os trabalhadores, as eleições serão fatos políticos importantes e delas devem participar os revolucionários.

Enquanto a burguesia tende a substituir a luta de classes pelas eleições e entende que a participação nas eleições tem que se dar por meio de candidatos, os revolucionários devem lutar para substituir as eleições pelas lutas de classe. Nesse contexto, "participar" deve fazer parte de uma estratégia revolucionária muito mais flexível que a estratégia burguesa. "Participar", neste caso, não pode se limitar ao lançamento de candidaturas e programas eleitorais.

Lançar candidatos – ou não --, não deve ser uma questão de princípio, mas mera questão tática. Se, em determinadas circunstâncias, lançar uma candidatura for importante, que assim seja feito. Ou, caso contrário, que não se lancem candidatos.

Vivemos uma conjuntura política muito favorável à propaganda comunista, provavelmente a mais favorável nas últimas décadas. A atual conformação do Estado brasileiro e a relação das facções das classes dominantes com ele torna muito difícil, no curto prazo, mascarar como no passado o seu caráter anti-popular, anti-nacional e anti-proletário. A absolvição da maior parte dos ladrões publicamente identificados e que roubaram dinheiro público para a corrupção eleitoral, as CPIs que se transformam em pizza, a evidência palmar que o dinheiro corrompe até mesmo um metalúrgico que deixou na prensa um de seus dedos (lembram-se como este argumento foi utilizado para incensar Lula em 2002?), cria uma disposição generalizada muito favorável a uma campanha nacional pelo voto nulo e uma agitação e propaganda de um novo país, como uma nova forma de organizar sua representação política: a forma comunal.

Hoje, fazer a agitação e propaganda ao redor de um novo Estado no qual os representantes eleitos sejam removíveis a qualquer instante pela base que os elegeu, que seus representantes sejam responsáveis pelas propostas e projetos que foram eleitos para defender e implementar, que os eleitos recebam o mesmo salário que um operário e, por fim, que a mesma assembléia que elege e decide seja também responsável pela implementação prática das decisões – enfim, a propaganda e agitação ao redor das características determinantes de um Estado de transição entre o capitalismo e o comunismo nos moldes da Comuna de Paris, possui potencialidades políticas que não deveriam ser desprezadas pelos revolucionários.

Vote nulo contra o Estado burguês! Por um Estado em que os representantes sejam responsáveis, removíveis, recebam o salário de um operário e que termine com a divisão entre o legislativo e o executivo: estas bandeiras, bem trabalhadas, poderão ajudar no acúmulo de forças revolucionárias no sentido e no rumo corretos, isto é, à esquerda.

É, neste sentido, uma oportunidade histórica de ouro. Temos liberdade política, podemos organizar publicamente a campanha, é possível associar a discussão mais aprofundada da transição ao socialismo com grupos menores de pessoas nas universidades, fábricas e sindicatos com pedágios públicos para arrecadar recursos para a campanha do voto nulo, assembléias nos bairros e nos sindicatos, manifestações, panfletagens e pichações. No melhor estilo de uma campanha política revolucionária.

Podemos, ainda, nos diferenciar claramente dos reformistas e fazer a crítica mais contundente ao PSOL retirando todas as lições da tragédia petista: organizar a sociedade para lutar no parlamento nada mais é que substituir a luta de classes pela disputa parlamentar. Em poucas palavras, significa travar a luta no terreno mais favorável ao inimigo de classe. E, tudo isso, com um apelo de massas que não teríamos no passado recente nem, talvez, tenhamos nos anos à frente.

O contrário disso (apoiar a frente "classista" com o PSOL ou lançar uma candidatura própria) fortalece as ilusões eleitorais sugerindo que, apesar de tudo, não há alternativa ao Parlamento no momento em que a "legitimidade" das eleições e dos "políticos" alcança seu nível mais baixo.

Em suma, os equívocos do PSTU nestas eleições estão em:

1) ter considerado a possibilidade de uma frente "classista" com o PSOL. Este é um partido essencialmente eleitoreiro, reformista e tem na proposta de "resgate" do PT sua proposta política essencial. Uma frente com o PSOL, hoje, seria não uma frente "classista", mas um rebaixamento da política revolucionária ao patamar da política reformista;

2) imaginar que o elogio ao PSOL contido no apoio de sua candidatura "natural" à presidência irá trazer militantes para o PSTU é mera ilusão: o mais provável é que ocorra o inverso, tal como no passado recente. Apenas a radicalidade na luta ideológica permite o acúmulo de forças revolucionárias;

3) considerar que "só podemos participar" das eleições por meio de candidatos e que o voto nulo significaria não participar do pleito deixando o espaço aberto à burguesia. Por este raciocínio, até chegar à revolução e as ilusões parlamentares das massas terem perdido espaço, teremos sempre que lançar candidatos, o que na prática transforma de tática em estratégia o lançamento de candidaturas nas eleições burguesas. Ledo engano: o voto nulo é uma forma de participação muito mais atrasada do ponto de vista revolucionário que o boicote. Mas, nas atuais circunstâncias, é um ato de protesto que pode envolver boa parte da sociedade e muitos dos trabalhadores contra o Estado burguês no que ele tem de politicamente essencial: representar o capital contra os trabalhadores, principalmente contra os proletários. Ao propor-se voto nulo não estamos propondo o boicote do pleito, pois não cometemos o equívoco de identificar participação ao lançamento de candidaturas;

4) perder uma oportunidade muito favorável à crítica do Estado burguês e do reformismo: nunca foi mais fácil a discussão de um Estado tipo comuna.

O PSTU tem dado mostras de combatividade revolucionária inquestionáveis. Tem se constituído, com méritos, na referência às lutas de esquerda em nosso país. Até hoje é dos raros partidos que podem se orgulhar de não terem cedido às ilusões parlamentares e reformistas. Não é hora (se é que existirá tal momento) de o PSTU pretender um atalho para ampliar sua presença política através de uma aproximação com os remanescentes históricos e herdeiros políticos da tragédia petista ou dos partidários das políticas afirmativas. Que o PSTU abandone o apoio às cotas, que volte a defender o não pagamento da totalidade da dívida nacional, que abandone esta concepção de que só podemos participar de eleições burguesas lançando candidatos.

Uma vez mais, como dizia Maiakovsky, "à esquerda, à esquerda, à esquerda"!
Voto Nulo! Viva a comuna!
maio de 2006

==========

Meu comentário, em mensdagem escrita ao camarada Sergio Lessa, no mesmo dia:

Rumores sobre a situacao "pré-revolucionária" e a próxima Comuna são grandemente exagerados e a consigna de voto nulo vai conseguir uma única coisa: eleger um corja ainda maior de bandidos para o parlamento.
Um pouco de discernimento não faria mal ao PSTU, por uma vez...
-------------
Paulo Roberto de Almeida

sábado, junho 03, 2006

94) Grupo de Supridores Nucleares: reuniao em Brasilia

Nota nº 351 - 02/06/2006 (do MRE)
Distribuição 22 e 23

Declaração do Grupo de Supridores Nucleares - Reunião Plenária do Grupo de Supridores Nucleares - Brasília, 1º e 2 de junho de 2006

O Grupo de Supridores Nucleares (NSG)
Fortalecendo o Regime de Não-Proliferação Nuclear


A décima-sexta Reunião Plenária do Grupo de Supridores Nucleares (“Nuclear Suppliers Group” ou NSG) realizou-se em Brasília, nos dias 1 e 2 de junho de 2006. O Embaixador Samuel Pinheiro Guimarães Neto, Secretário-Geral das Relações Exteriores, proferiu discurso de abertura e boas-vindas em nome do Governo Brasileiro. A Reunião foi presidida pelo Embaixador José Artur Denot Medeiros, Representante Especial para Desarmamento e Não-Proliferação.

O objetivo do NSG, que conta atualmente com 45 Governos Participantes(1) e a Comissão Européia como observador permanente, é o de prevenir a proliferação de armas nucleares por meio de controles de exportação de materiais, equipamentos, “software” e tecnologia nucleares ou correlatos, sem prejuízo da cooperação internacional nos usos pacíficos da energia nuclear.

O NSG avaliou os desenvolvimentos havidos desde a última Reunião Plenária em Oslo (Noruega), em junho de 2005, e a Reunião Plenária Extraordinária realizada em Viena (Áustria), em outubro de 2005. Ao fazê-lo, o NSG:

- Realizou intercâmbio de informações e análises sobre os desafios atuais de proliferação;

- Conclamou todos os Estados a exercer extrema vigilância e a despender os maiores esforços para assegurar-se que nenhuma de suas exportações de bens e tecnologias venham a contribuir para programas de armas nucleares;

- Discutiu o valor da contínua revisão da “Trigger List” e da lista de uso dual, e das listas de produtores de tecnologias sensíveis e itens relacionados, de forma a garantir controle apropriado de itens não listados que poderiam ser usados, direta ou indiretamente, em programas que causam preocupação;

- Reconheceram que a Resolução nº 1540 do Conselho de Segurança das Nações Unidas desempenha um papel crucial no desenvolvimento de um mecanismo efetivo para prevenir a proliferação de armas de destruição em massa, seus meios de transporte e materiais relacionados, para Estados e atores não-estatais ao redor do mundo, e saudaram a recente extensão do mandato de seu Comitê para um período adicional de dois anos.

O intercâmbio de informações sobre desafios atuais de proliferação concentrou-se principalmente na República Islâmica do Irã. Os Governos Participantes expressaram seu pleno apoio ao contínuo trabalho da AIEA no cumprimento de seu mandato no Irã, e conclamaram o Irã a cooperar plenamente com a Agência nesse tema. Eles reconheceram a importância das medidas de construção de confiança para a solução da questão. Os Governos Participantes expressaram pleno apoio aos processos em curso em diversos foros com vistas à identificação de uma solução diplomática para a questão nuclear iraniana.

Com vistas a fortalecer ainda mais os controles de exportação dos Governos Participantes, o NSG decidiu adotar, entre outras, as seguintes medidas:

- Diretrizes revisadas para o intercâmbio de informações no âmbito do NSG;

- Uma abordagem para continuar as discussões sobre Protocolo Adicional no Grupo Consultivo;

- Uma emenda à Parte I das Diretrizes para incluir válvulas especialmente designadas ou preparadas para uso em plantas de enriquecimento;

- Meios para incorporar os resultados do “Workshop” do NSG sobre tecnologias sensíveis nas atividades de extensão (“outreach”)

Os Governos Participantes também concordaram em continuar a discussão sobre:

- A questão da aderência de Estados não-membros às diretrizes do NSG, de forma a garantir implementação mais ampla de sistemas abrangentes e efetivos de controle.

- Maior fortalecimento das diretrizes do NSG no que diz respeito a controles especiais sobre exportações sensíveis.

- Se os procedimentos internos do NSG deveriam ser revisados ou esclarecidos, de forma a aperfeiçoar o intercâmbio de informações em todos os níveis.

Adicionalmente, os Governos Participantes acordaram em conferir mandato ao Presidente e à “Troika” para continuar os contatos com Governos Não-Participantes e Organizações Internacionais, no contexto do atual programa de extensão (“outreach”) do NSG.

Os Governos Participantes continuaram a examinar as questões levantadas pelo pronunciamento conjunto EUA-Índia de julho de 2005. Eles discutiram, nesse contexto, uma possível relação entre NSG e Índia em relação à cooperação nuclear civil. Decidiram continuar suas consultas e concordaram em retornar a essa questão durante a próxima reunião regular do Grupo Consultivo, ocasião em que informações adicionais poderão estar disponíveis.

Brasília, 2 de junho de 2006.

(1) Alemanha, África do Sul, Argentina, Austrália, Áustria, Belarus, Bélgica, Brasil, Bulgária, Canadá, Cazaquistão, China, Croácia, Chipre, Dinamarca, Eslováquia, Eslovênia, Espanha, Estados Unidos, Estônia, Federação Russa, Finlândia, França, Grécia, Hungria, Irlanda, Itália, Japão, Letônia, Lituânia, Luxemburgo, Malta, Nova Zelândia, Noruega, Países Baixos, Polônia, Portugal, Reino Unido, Romênia, República da Coréia, República Tcheca, Suécia, Suíça, Turquia e Ucrânia.

93) Irlanda, um caso unico na historia...

Apenas para concluir a reportagem em outro tom (vejam o final): pessoalmente, não creio que deva ser dificil encontrar queijos franceses nos supermercados irlandeses, ainda que não sejam aqueles queijos sujinhos, artesanais, com listeriose, mas industrializados, tipo Camembert President, desses que se encontram em qualquer supermercado brasileiro (e até bons chevres e Roquefort).
Quanto a ter pão francês, nada mais fácil: basta importar um bom boulanger, ou melhor, vários, dezenas, centenas de jeunes boulangers sans travail, desses que saem das escolas tecnicas diretamente para as filas do desemprego, para viver de allocations chomage...
A Irlanda, realmente, é um caso ainda mais surpreendente, em matéria de historia economica, do que a propria China, ela mesma um caso unico na historia economica mundial em termos de crescimento extraordinario.
Mas a Irlanda fez muito melhor: triplicou a renda per capita em regime de democracia e de abertura politica, o que a China nunca fez...
Viva a Irlanda!
-------------
Paulo Roberto de Almeida


The Gauls at Home in Erin
Derek Speirs
The New York Times, June 2, 2006
By JOHN TAGLIABUE

DUBLIN — This snug Irish capital might seem an unlikely destination for young French men and women. The weather would jar anyone from the Côte d'Azur. And the food is basically what the Michelin restaurant guide might consider a form of boiled stew.

Paul-Henry Walter, who has been working in Ireland for six months, found a job quickly. He applied, was called, and started in two weeks.
Yet thousands of people — many just out of university — are deserting France to live and work here, in a European city that sparkles with economic vibrancy despite a more general sense of stagnation in much of the Continent.
Like many others moving across Europe, they are migrating for jobs, which are far more plentiful in Ireland than in France, where the economy is flabbier, work for young people is scarcer and taxes are higher.
For Europeans, who used to cling to a homebound culture where many people often lived and died within shouting distance of their birthplace, that is a cultural revolution.
Like the United States, Europe is wrestling with immigration problems. But European countries have to deal not only with immigration from places like Africa and Southeast Asia, which they strictly limit, but also from their neighbors in the European Union, who are legally entitled, with some restrictions, to work and live anywhere within Europe's single market.
In Ireland, so many French migrants have arrived that the person who folds back comforters for hotel guests or serves Guinness with dinner seems as likely to come from Lyon these days as from Limerick. By last year, an estimated 20,000 French migrants were working in Ireland, according to French officials, and the number continues to rise.
The only larger modern French "colony" is in Britain, where an estimated 86,000 have found work. In London restaurants these days, the waiters are very often French.
For some countries, like Belgium, migration has become a part of the culture. An estimated 600,000 Belgians, or 8 percent of the population, live and work outside Belgium, and many of them will never return.
But despite language barriers, even countries like France, where migration was once very rare, are changing. In Germany and Italy, growing numbers of young people employed in the banking or financial services are going abroad, often to London or New York.
The migration also lays bare class differences in a Europe that has opened in recent years to Central European countries like Poland and Hungary. While the educated French work in financial services and computers, more menial tasks, like bricklaying or plumbing, are often done by Poles, Lithuanians or Latvians.
Cases of workplace discrimination against migrant workers from Eastern Europe have caused the Irish government some concern, while little or none is aimed at Western Europeans like the French, the Germans or the Italians.
When Moore McDowell, an economist at University College Dublin, was strolling recently near St. Stephen's Green, in central Dublin, he saw scaffolding on a construction site, with a sign, in English and Polish, that read, "No more Poles needed on this building site."
But as for the French, "if they have good English, and a good baccalaureate, there's a demand for them," he said.
"We are close to fully employed, so the Irish economy is sucking in employees across Europe."
Ireland has been one of the great economic success stories of Europe, with real growth, adjusted for inflation, that has been averaging 5 percent to 6 percent annually for many years. Employees for the financial services and computer industries are in great demand. In the building trades, though, the boom is cooling and demand is weaker.
Indeed, the different speeds at which European economies grow, or fail to, has created splits across Europe, yet they do not always explain migration. In Central Europe, for instance, growth rates are far greater than those of the much richer countries of the west, yet higher wages still lure Central Europeans to countries like Germany, France, Britain and Ireland.
So great is the Western migration from the East that Western businessmen doing business in Eastern European countries like Poland complain of an inability to find laborers like carpenters, masons or plumbers.
Across Europe, the process has created a hierarchy, with Western Europeans like the French or Germans at the top, Eastern Europeans in the middle, working mainly in construction, and Africans and Asians at the bottom of the labor heap, working in restaurant kitchens, or in garbage removal.
Speeding the procession from France are John Murat, 29, of Lyon, and Laurent Girard-Claudon, a 29-year-old Parisian who founded Approach People, an employment firm specializing in finding jobs for French people in Ireland. In 2002, their first year in business together, they placed 10 people; this year, they expect to place 350.
From four or five employees at the start, the company has grown to 21. Every day, about 500 French men and women visit its Web site, approachpeople.com.
"It's a developing game," Mr. Girard-Claudon said.
Much of the company's growth, he said, is because of the presence in Ireland of big American corporations. American clients of Approach People include Dell, Symantec, I.B.M., Microsoft, Oracle and Apple.
Both Mr. Murat and Mr. Girard-Claudon became devotees of Ireland after deserting France in the mid-1990's in search of employment. To figure out why Ireland was producing jobs on an assembly line while France stagnated, they looked around at different businesses in Dublin.
By contrast, in France an employee must pay tax, pension, unemployment and social security charges of more than 40 percent; the similar charges in Ireland are no more than 16 percent, they discovered.
They also learned about the differences in vacation policy: the French usually receive six or seven weeks of vacation a year; the Irish get four to five weeks.
Moreover, Irish employers have much more flexibility to hire and fire.
"You can still have a success story in Ireland," Mr. Murat said.
At the Approach People offices in Blackrock, a southern suburb of Dublin, Frederic Nerot, 29, a native of Orleans in the Loire Valley of France, said he had come not so much to flee French unemployment as to gain real work experience and improve his English.
"I'm not running away from France, but looking for experience," he said.
Earlier he had spent six months traveling through Asia, before deciding to come to Ireland. He recently arrived in Dublin, dropping his bag at a youth hostel before seeking out the Approach People office.
He was in Thailand last fall, he said, when an article in The Bangkok Post described the riots in France protesting the liberalization of employment laws. "To have a viewpoint is easy, to have a solution is harder," he said. "The French are great protestors."
Over a Guinness in a Dublin pub, Paul-Henry Walter agreed. Mr. Walter, 27, a Parisian who finished a degree in business at Lille and then held some odd jobs before coming to Ireland, said he was angered by the demonstrations.
"We have to be flexible," he said, "whether we're working in Marseille or Dublin."
The French are struck by the easy collegiality of the Irish, noting that work-related problems are often resolved not in the office but over a pint after work.
"In France on Friday afternoon, you say to your colleagues, 'Have a good weekend,' and 'I'll see you on Monday,' " Mr. Girard-Claudon said. "Here, it's 'Where are we going to drink one tonight?' "
They are also struck by the ease and speed with which business decisions are made in Ireland. "It went very quickly," said Mr. Walter, who has been working in Ireland for six months, describing his hiring. "I applied. I got a call, 'You start in two weeks.' "
He said he was working full time with an open-ended contract. "I'm basically in sales, computer solutions, selling to customers in France," he said. "All the administrative work is in English."
Mr. Walter shares a house with a fellow Frenchman, a man from New Zealand and a Slovenian woman.
Would he ever go back to France? "If I found something," he said, "I would prefer to stay in Paris."
But he hasn't. And some people from French are starting to settle down here. Mr. Murat, who goes by the name John rather than his native Jean-Christophe, married an Irish woman, and his daughter, with her blue eyes and blond hair, is more Irish than French, he says.
So, is the migration a brain drain, or simply postgraduate training for young Europeans who will one day return to their native countries? Probably both, Mr. Girard-Claudon said.
"There are those who want one to two years to gain experience and improve their English to find a better job in France," he said. "And then there are people here for four to five years, to develop a career here, maybe go back, maybe not."
Robert Hancké, a Belgian economist at the London School of Economics, said France was among the European economies that had benefited most from globalization, opening markets to French products and investment. Yet globalization, and the flexibility and migration of people that accompany it, remains a bugaboo.
"They call it this big horrible thing around the corner," he said.
But while many native French are worried about the impact of open markets on their local traditions, François Peschaire, 25 and an employee of Approach People, is among those who just want to get ahead.
"I can do without French cheese, French bread, other things," he said. "I'm happy to find it, but it's not a difficulty to do without it."

quinta-feira, junho 01, 2006

92) De volta ao problema das charges dinamarquesas...

Por que publiquei as charges de Maomé
Flemming Rose (editor de cultura do Jyllands-Posten)*
01/06/2006 – Der Spiegel – Uol

A correção política européia permite que os muçulmanos resistam à integração, argumenta o editor de cultura do "Jyllands-Posten". Mas, em vez disso, os muçulmanos deveriam ser tratados exatamente como todos os europeus - o que inclui estar sujeito a sátiras. Ele argumenta que a publicação das charges foi um ato de "inclusão" e não de exclusão.

O furor mundial desencadeado pelas charges do profeta Maomé que eu publiquei em setembro do ano passado no "Jyllands-Posten", o jornal dinamarquês para o qual trabalho, se constituiu tanto em uma surpresa quanto em uma tragédia, especialmente para aqueles diretamente afetados pelo fato. Vidas foram perdidas, prédios incendiados e pessoas foram obrigadas a se esconder.

Mas as reações desequilibradas às caricaturas não tão provocadoras assim - denúncias ruidosas e até ameaças de morte dirigidas contra nós, mas pouca indignação com relação aos indivíduos que atacaram duas embaixadas dinamarquesas - desmascarou realidades desagradáveis sobre o fracassado experimento da Europa com o multiculturalismo. É hora de o Velho Continente encarar os fatos e promover certas mudanças profundas na sua forma de ver a imigração, a integração e a explosão demográfica muçulmana que está por vir.

Após décadas de conciliação e correção política, combinadas ao medo crescente de uma minoria radical preparada para cometer graves atos de violência, o momento da verdade para a Europa chegou.

Atualmente a Europa se vê aprisionada em uma postura de relativismo moral que está minando os seus valores liberais. Uma aliança mundana de três faces entre ditadores do Oriente Médio, imãs radicais que moram na Europa e a tradicional esquerda européia está permitindo que grasse uma política de vitimologia. Essa política impulsiona uma cultura que resiste à integração e à adaptação, perpetua as diferenças nacionais e religiosas e agrava tais males sociais debilitantes como as altas taxas de criminalidade dos imigrantes e um desemprego crônico.

Como pessoa que já defendeu o Estado utópico de paraíso multicultural, acho que sei sobre o que estou falando. Minha formação se deu em meio aos ideais da década de 1960, no clima da Guerra Fria. Eu enxergava a vida através da lente da agitação contracultural, adotando tanto a postura hippie quanto o complexo de superioridade política da minha geração. Eu e os meus colegas da escola secundária acreditávamos que o Ocidente era imperialista e racista.

Analisávamos a decadência da civilização ocidental por meio dos textos de Marx e Engels, e idolatrávamos a música de John Lennon, bonita, mas estúpida, sobre um mundo ideal sem propriedade privada: "Imagine que não há propriedade/Será que você consegue?/Nenhuma necessidade de avareza ou fome/Uma irmandade dos homens/Imagine todas as pessoas/Compartilhando o mundo todo".

Demorei dez meses como um jovem estudante na União Soviética em 1980 e 1981 para entender com o que se pareceria um mundo sem propriedade privada, embora fosse necessário que se passassem vários anos até que as conseqüências integrais do dogma marxista central se tornassem claras para mim.

Essa experiência foi o início de uma longa jornada intelectual que até o momento culminou nas reações às charges de Maomé. Politicamente, eu amadureci na União Soviética. Retornei àquele país em 1990, e lá passei 11 anos como correspondente estrangeiro. Por meio do contato próximo com dissidentes corajosos que estavam dispostos a sofrer e a ir para a prisão pela sua crença nos ideais da democracia ocidental, fui curado dos meus sonhos incertos de coletivismo idealista. Eu compreendi intensamente o alto preço que os meus amigos estavam dispostos a pagar por exatamente aquelas liberdades que víamos como algo de trivial nos tempos de escola secundária, e que não entendíamos como valores inerentes da nossa civilização: liberdade de expressão, religião, associação e formação de movimentos. Aprendi que a justiça e a igualdade implicam em oportunidades iguais, e não em resultados iguais para todos.

Agora, no fracasso da Europa em lidar de forma realista com o seu cenário demográfico que muda dramaticamente, enxergo um novo paralelo com a jornada da Guerra Fria. Atualmente, a esquerda européia está enganando a si própria com relação à imigração, à integração e ao radicalismo islâmico, da mesma forma que nós, os jovens hippies, nos iludíamos quanto ao marxismo e ao comunismo 30 anos atrás. Trata-se de uma narrativa de confrontação e de hierarquia que alega que o Ocidente explora, marginaliza e comete abusos contra o mundo islâmico. Intelectuais de esquerda insistiram em dizer que os dinamarqueses estavam oprimindo e marginalizando os imigrantes muçulmanos.
Essa visão se coaduna precisamente com o modelo de orientalismo do falecido Edward Said, que argumentava que os especialistas no Oriente e no mundo muçulmano não descrevem aquela região como ela é, mas como uma espécie de "outro" temido, como o exato oposto de nós - que deveria, portanto, ser rejeitado. Nesta narrativa o Ocidente é democrático, e o Oriente despótico.

Nós somos racionais, e eles irracionais.

Este tipo de pensamento gerou uma abordagem distorcida com relação à imigração em países como a Dinamarca. Comentaristas de esquerda decidiram que a Dinamarca era ao mesmo tempo racista e islamófoba. Assim sendo, o principal obstáculo à imigração não seria a falta de disposição dos imigrantes para se adaptarem culturalmente ao seu país adotado (atualmente, existem 200 mil dinamarqueses muçulmanos); o obstáculo seria o racismo e o preconceito contra os muçulmanos, inerentes ao país.

Um culto de vitimologia surgiu e foi alegremente explorado por radicais espertos da comunidade muçulmana européia, especialmente certos líderes religiosos, como o ímã Ahmad Abu Laban, na Dinamarca, e o mulá Krekar, na Noruega. O mulá Krekar - um fundador curdo da Ansar al Islan, que neste ano recebeu uma ordem de expulsão da Noruega - disse a respeito da publicação das nossas charges: "Isso foi uma declaração de guerra contra nossa religião, nossa fé e nossa civilização. A nossa maneira de pensar está penetrando na sociedade e é mais vigorosa do que a deles. Isso causa ódio na maneira de pensar ocidental. Como parte perdedora, eles cometem violências".

O papel de vítima é muito conveniente porque ele exime a autodeclarada vítima de qualquer responsabilidade, e ao mesmo tempo confere a ela uma postura de superioridade moral. Isto também oculta certos fatos inconvenientes que poderiam sugerir uma explicação diferente para a vagarosa integração de alguns grupos imigrantes - tais como os índices de criminalidade relativamente elevados, a opressão das mulheres e uma tradição de se promover casamentos forçados.

Ditaduras no Oriente Médio e imãs radicais adotaram o jargão da esquerda européia, chamando as charges de racistas e islamófobas. Quando ocidentais criticam a falta de liberdades civis e a opressão das mulheres, eles dizem que nos comportamos como imperialistas. Eles adotaram a retórica e a voltaram contra nós.

Estes fatos estão correndo contra o perturbador cenário de fundo formado por muçulmanos cada vez mais radicais na Europa. Muhammed Atta, o líder da operação do 11 de setembro, se tornou um muçulmano de fé renovada após se mudar para a Europa. Este também foi o caso dos perpetradores dos atentados a bomba em Madri e em Londres. O mesmo se aplica a Mohammed Bouyeri, o jovem muçulmano que matou o cineasta Theo van Gogh, em Amsterdã. A Europa, e não o Oriente Médio, pode ser atualmente o terreno fértil para o crescimento do terrorismo islâmico.

Lições dos Estados Unidos

O que há de errado com a Europa? Por um lado, a forma como o continente aborda as questões da imigração e da integração está enraizada na sua experiência histórica com culturas relativamente homogêneas. Nos Estados Unidos, a definição de nacionalidade é essencialmente política. Na Europa ela é historicamente cultural. Eu sou dinamarquês porque tenho aparência de europeu, falo dinamarquês e sou descendente de gerações seculares de outros escandinavos. Mas e quanto aos novos dinamarqueses, escuros e barbudos, que falam árabe nas suas casas, e balbuciam um dinamarquês errado nas ruas? Nós, europeus, precisamos fazer um profundo ajustamento cultural para entendermos que eles, também, podem ser dinamarqueses.

Um outro grande impedimento para a integração é o welfare state europeu.

Devido ao fato de as redes de segurança social européias altamente desenvolvidas, mas cada vez mais caras e inacessíveis para os pobres, fornecerem seguros desempregos generosos, mas incentivos insuficientes para que os indivíduos trabalhem, vários novos imigrantes passam imediatamente a viver de caridade.

Embora se possa argumentar que a comunidade de cerca de 20 milhões de imigrantes muçulmanos na Europa - um contingente que cresce velozmente - seja o equivalente aos novos imigrantes hispânicos nos Estados Unidos, a diferença de produtividade e prosperidade entre esses dois grupos é surpreendente. Um estudo da Organização para a Cooperação e o Desenvolvimento Econômico, feito em 1999, revelou que enquanto os imigrantes nos Estados Unidos são quase iguais aos trabalhadores nativos como pagadores de impostos e contribuintes para a prosperidade norte-americana, na Dinamarca existe uma nítida diferença de 41% entre as contribuições feitas pelos nativos e os imigrantes. Nos Estados Unidos, um trabalhador demitido recebe uma média de 32% de compensação pelos seus antigos salários na forma de serviços de assistência social. Já na Dinamarca este número é de 81%. Uma cultura de dependência destes serviços prospera entre os imigrantes, e é tida como algo natural.

O que fazer? Obviamente, jamais poderemos retornar às confortáveis monoculturas do passado. Uma revolução demográfica está mudando a face e a aparência da Europa. Em uma era de migração em massa e Internet, passagens baratas de avião e telefones celulares por toda parte, o pluralismo cultural é um fato irreversível, quer se goste disso ou não. Uma saudade nostálgica da pureza cultural - pureza racial, pureza religiosa - pode facilmente se transformar em ideologias de limpeza étnica.

Mas o multiculturalismo que com muita freqüência se transformou em mero relativismo cultural, é uma proposição indefensável que muitas vezes justifica práticas reacionárias e opressivas. Conferir aos valores não liberais do islamismo conservador o mesmo peso que é dado às tradições liberais do Iluminismo europeu é algo que acabará cedo ou tarde destruindo aqueles exatos fatores que fazem da Europa um alvo tão desejável para os imigrantes.

A Europa precisa se livrar da camisa-de-força da correção política que faz com que seja impossível criticar as minorias por qualquer coisa - incluindo as violações da lei, dos costumes e dos valores que são o cerne da experiência européia. Duas experiências expõem para mim essa história.

Pouco depois do horrível cerco ao teatro em Moscou, em 2002, por terroristas tchetchenos, em uma ação que resultou na morte de 130 pessoas, encontrei um dos meus velhos amigos dissidentes, Sergei Kovalev. Um herói do movimento dos direitos humanos na antiga União Soviética, Kovalev era há muito tempo defensor dos tchetchenos e um crítico dos ataques russos contra a Tchetchênia. Mas após o massacre ocorrido no teatro, ele se recusou, como sempre, a falar bobagens politicamente corretas a respeito da luta justa dos tchetchenos pela secessão e a descolonização. Kovalev denunciou sem hesitação os terroristas, e insistiu em dizer que o direito de um país à autodeterminação não implica em um passe livre para matar e violar direitos individuais básicos. Para mim, aquele foi um momento esclarecedor sobre a desonestidade das políticas de identidade e da ocasional tirania de se elevar os direitos do grupo acima daqueles dos indivíduos - de se justificar o assassinato de inocentes em nome de alguma causa mais elevada.

A outra experiência foi uma viagem que fiz na década de 1990, quando era correspondente nos Estados Unidos, no bairro de Brighton Beach, no Brooklyn, em Nova York. Lá eu escrevi uma história sobre a próspera, agitada e vibrante comunidade de imigrantes russos da região - um exemplo perfeito de pessoas retendo parte da sua velha identidade cultural (bebendo chá de samovares, jogando xadrez por horas a fio e freqüentando a igreja) e, ao mesmo tempo, tirando vantagem do capitalismo livre e aberto dos Estados Unidos para conquistar segurança econômica. Fiquei maravilhado com a capacidade daquele país em absorver os recém-chegados. Aquele foi um outro momento esclarecedor.

Um ato de inclusão. O tratamento igual é a forma democrática de permitir que os recém-chegados superem as barreiras tradicionais de sangue e solo. Para mim, isso significa tratar os imigrantes exatamente como qualquer outro dinamarquês. E foi isso o que senti que estava fazendo ao publicar as 12 charges de Maomé no ano passado. Aquelas imagens não excederam de maneira alguma os limites do gosto, da sátira e do humor aos quais eu submeteria qualquer outro dinamarquês, fosse ele a rainha, o líder da igreja ou o primeiro-ministro. Ao tratar uma figura muçulmana da mesma maneira que trataria um ícone cristão ou judeu, eu enviei uma mensagem importante: vocês não são estranhos, estão aqui para ficar, e nós os aceitamos como uma parte integrada da nossa vida. E vamos satirizá-los também. Aquilo foi um ato de inclusão, e não de exclusão. Um ato de respeito e de reconhecimento.

Infelizmente alguns muçulmanos não viram a coisa dessa forma - embora tenham sido necessários uma campanha altamente organizada, várias caricaturas falsificadas (e bastante asquerosas) e muitos meses de viagens ao exterior para que os imãs ofendidos provocassem uma reação internacional.

Talvez a Europa precise tomar emprestada uma página - ou um livro inteiro - da experiência norte-americana. Para que emerja uma nova Europa de muitas culturas e que seja, de alguma forma, uma entidade única, de forma similar à experiência dos Estados Unidos, ambos os lados precisam fazer um esforço - os nativos e os recém-chegados.

Para os imigrantes, esperar que eles não só aprendam a língua nativa mas também respeitem as tradições políticas e culturais dos novos países não é exigir demais, e algumas novas leis rígidas (talvez demasiadamente rígidas) estão sendo aprovadas para forçar que isso ocorra. Ao mesmo tempo, os europeus devem demonstrar uma disposição para descartar idéias entranhadas sobre sangue e solo, e aceitar povos de culturas e países estrangeiros como aquilo que eles são: os novos europeus.

*Flemming Rose é editor de cultura do "Jyllands-Posten", o maior jornal da Dinamarca.

91) O lado interno da nacionalização de gás na Bolívia

Matéria da agência de imprensa IPS, da qual destaco o seguinte trecho, que revela que a parte boliviana não tem a intenção, na verdade, de se comprometer a cumprir com eventuais laudos arbitrais que venham a ser proferidos em favor da Petrobras:

Transcrição:
--¿Cómo procederán en caso de una demanda en un tribunal arbitral?
--No tienen contratos válidos para demandarnos. Y si lo hicieran, el Estado boliviano puede negarse a responder a un tribunal arbitral. Aunque continúe el proceso en rebeldía, y si de aquí a siete años nos ganan, preguntaríamos ingenuamente: ¿Cómo harán cumplir los laudos? No hay laudo arbitral contrario a un Estado soberano que haya sido ejecutado a la fuerza, y no existe legislación internacional que determine un mecanismo para cobrar un laudo arbitral contra un Estado. La mayoría de países tiene arbitrajes. Brasil, Argentina y Cuba, y no se caen y no son bloqueados.
Fim de transcrição.

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BOLIVIA: Cómo se nacionalizó el enorme negocio petrolero
Por Franz Chávez

LA PAZ, may (IPS) - "¡Si están de acuerdo, firmen el decreto!", dijo a sus ministros el presidente indígena de Bolivia, Evo Morales, en la madrugada del 1 de mayo. Estaba nacionalizando un negocio que moverá 200.000 millones de dólares en las próximas dos décadas en el país más pobre de América del Sur. Uno de los estrategas de la medida relató el proceso a IPS.

Morales entregó el documento a sus colaboradores, sentados en torno a una enorme mesa de madera tallada en el salón de reuniones del Palacio de Gobierno, cuando los primeros rayos de sol se filtraban en la mañana fría de La Paz.

Firmas, aplausos y el himno nacional. Tras el último verso ("Morir antes que esclavos vivir"), Morales sonrió y agregó: "El avión nos espera".

Unos pocos colaboradores sabían de la operación militar de toma de campos petroleros y del viaje del mandatario con sus boquiabiertos ministros en una aeronave Hércules hasta la región de Caraparí, 1.200 kilómetros al sur.

Cuando Morales llegó a las puertas de la central gasífera de San Alberto, controlada hasta ese día por el consorcio estatal brasileño Petrobras, los empleados lo recibieron con sonrisas y le preguntaron cuál era el área operativa que deseaba visitar.

Pero el presidente llegaba para tomar posesión de las instalaciones y del yacimiento, algo que su par brasileño Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva le reprocharía poco después.

Un día antes, otro ejército, pero de ingenieros petroleros, se desplazó silenciosamente a las plantas y yacimientos, con el pretexto de realizar tareas de fiscalización, aunque la cantidad de personal era mayor a la habitual.

"Nuevos profesionales acompañan a los antiguos para ganar experiencia en el terreno", tranquilizaron los funcionarios a los vigilantes de las compañías petroleras extranjeras. La misión secreta de los técnicos estatales era actuar de emergencia, en caso de que las empresas decidieran suspender la extracción y suministro de energéticos a la población.

Esta historia casi desconocida fue relatada a IPS por uno de los seis responsables de la sigilosa nacionalización, Manuel Morales Olivera, asesor general de la estatal Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos (YPFB) e hijo del abogado Manuel Morales Dávila, quien había estado 42 días preso en
1996 tras acusar al entonces presidente Gonzalo Sánchez de Lozada de traición a la patria por privatizar el petróleo.

El decreto 28.701 devuelve al Estado la propiedad y control de los hidrocarburos, en cumplimiento del referendo de 2004 y de dos artículos de la Constitución, ordena la entrega de toda la producción a YPFB y establece un plazo de 180 días para que las compañías extranjeras negocien contratos bajo las nuevas normas de juego.

El texto reafirma la nulidad de contratos anteriores, pues no fueron refrendados por el Poder Legislativo, y establece las condiciones de las operaciones para el periodo de transición, durante el cual el Ministerio de Hidrocarburos determinará "caso por caso y mediante auditorías" las inversiones, amortizaciones, costos de operación y rentabilidad de cada empresa.

El resultado de dichas auditorías servirá de base para fijar las condiciones contractuales.

Mientras tanto, el valor de la producción de los campos con más de 100 millones de pies cúbicos de gas diarios se distribuirá en 82 por ciento para el Estado (18 por ciento de regalías y participaciones, 32 por ciento de Impuesto Directo a los Hidrocarburos y 32 por ciento como participación adicional para YPFB) y 18 por ciento para las compañías.

Para los yacimientos con una explotación menor, "durante el periodo de transición, se mantendrá la actual distribución del valor de la producción de hidrocarburos" de 50 por ciento para el Estado y para los privados, afirma el decreto.

Para asegurar la continuidad de la distribución, el decreto dispone la nacionalización de "las acciones necesarias para que YPFB controle como mínimo el 50 por ciento más 1 en las empresas" que habían pasado a manos de corporaciones extranjeras.

La elaboración del documento tiene su origen en la segunda mitad de 2002, después de que el ahora gobernante Movimiento al Socialismo (MAS) y Evo Morales obtuvieron el segundo lugar en los comicios a escasos 20.000 votos de Sánchez de Lozada (1993-1997 y 2002-2003), ejecutor de un amplio programa de privatizaciones.

El padre del actual asesor de YPFB, Morales Dávila, recibió el mandato de preparar el primer proyecto de nacionalización de hidrocarburos del MAS, presentado en octubre de 2002 al Congreso legislativo, con el respaldo de 30 parlamentarios y el apoyo de 10 organizaciones sindicales, pero esa fuerza era aún insuficiente, recordó Morales Olivera.

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"Soy por naturaleza filósofo, por historia un político y por necesidad del proceso boliviano me vinculé al tema de hidrocarburos", dijo el asesor.

Reclinado en un sillón de su domicilio de un barrio de clase media, con el cigarrillo humeante entre los dedos y frente a una estilizada imagen del guerrillero argentino-cubano, Ernesto Che Guevara, el ideólogo de la tercera nacionalización del petróleo respondió a las preguntas de IPS.

--¿Cuál es la corriente de pensamiento que predomina en el MAS para nacionalizar los hidrocarburos?
--La primera vertiente nace de la recuperación del territorio y poder de los pueblos originarios. Es la reconquista del espacio, tierra, aire, la lógica de vida y su cosmovisión. Esta nacionalización somete el capital a los intereses de la nación en lugar de expropiarlo. Como decía Evo Morales, queremos socios y no patrones. Esto explica la gran presencia de las Fuerzas Armadas. Si alguna empresa rechazaba la decisión, en ese mismo instante las Fuerzas Armadas y los profesionales tomaban control de las operaciones. Fue una acción de fuerza.

--Un marxista cuestionaría los motivos por los cuales no se confiscaron los bienes de las petroleras.
--En el caso del gas y petróleo, lo que le otorga valor no es el trabajo incorporado sino el valor de uso representado por la fuente de la riqueza.

--A diez años de la privatización de los hidrocarburos, la idea de lo que fue una empresa estatal del petróleo parece en el olvido. ¿Cuáles eran las tareas de YPFB?
--Operaba en toda la cadena productiva. Era propietaria del petróleo que se extraía de los campos, abastecía al mercado interno y exportaba gas a Argentina. Operaban empresas extranjeras, pero estaban subordinadas al control de YPFB. El Estado recibía regalías, participaciones complementarias y otros mecanismos por los cuales se obtenía 50 por ciento del valor de la producción. Tras la privatización, se desarticuló la empresa estatal y se limitaron sus funciones a la administración de contratos. Tenía prohibido por ley "tocar petróleo y oler gas". Las empresas privadas tomaron la organización, el sentido y la dirección del sector. Estaban dispuestas a captar 5.000 millones de dólares para exportar gas natural como materia prima (a estados Unidos y México), pero eran incapaces de invertir 40 millones de dólares en un gasoducto para abastecer al occidente del país. Por ejemplo, tenemos un difícil equilibrio entre la (poca) producción y (la gran) demanda de gas licuado de petróleo, pero exportamos gas natural rico en gas licuado.

--¿Cuál era el aporte de YPFB al Estado antes de su privatización?
--YPFB aportaba 400 millones de dólares por año, pero desde 1993, durante el gobierno de Sánchez de Lozada, comienza a declinar su participación y empiezan a matar a YPFB afirmando que era una empresa ineficiente.

--¿Durante la privatización, cuál fue el aporte de las empresas privadas?
--No superaba los 100 millones de dólares y en algunos años aportaron 10 millones de dólares. Tras el fortalecimiento del movimiento popular, en octubre de 2003, las empresas extranjeras aumentan sus aportes, aceptan las decisiones del gobierno sobre sus actividades y fijan un precio al barril de petróleo para el mercado interno. Para evitar un incremento de precios en la gasolina de consumo local, el gobierno pagaba la diferencia entre el precio internacional y el precio subvencionado a través de un mecanismo de compensación. Las petroleras nos prestaban dinero para comprarles nuestra propia gasolina a precio internacional con una tasa comercial de 8 por ciento anual.

--¿Qué sucedería si las empresas deciden retirarse del país?
--En el sector petrolero, las empresas no podrían retirar su inversión de inmediato, y si decidieran hacerlo, deben transferir sus instalaciones, ductos y otros bienes a nuevas compañías, y en este momento existen interesadas en comprarlos. Las nuevas empresas vendrán a un escenario con nuevas condiciones y sabiendo que aquí el Estado y los bolivianos decidimos. En el pasado nos dijeron que el pago de 50 por ciento de impuestos ocasionaría un bloqueo económico y la muerte de la industria petrolera, pero ahora que se aplica el 82 por ciento de impuestos en los campos San Alberto y San Antonio (de Petrobras), nadie dijo que morirán porque sabemos que aún así logran utilidades. Los dos megacampos producían alrededor de 940 millones de dólares anuales y (desde la Ley de Hidrocarburos, en septiembre de 2005) debían tributar la mitad, 470 millones de dólares. Ahora aportarán 780 millones de dólares por año, aproximadamente.

--¿Cómo procederán en caso de una demanda en un tribunal arbitral?
--No tienen contratos válidos para demandarnos. Y si lo hicieran, el Estado boliviano puede negarse a responder a un tribunal arbitral. Aunque continúe el proceso en rebeldía, y si de aquí a siete años nos ganan, preguntaríamos ingenuamente: ¿Cómo harán cumplir los laudos? No hay laudo arbitral contrario a un Estado soberano que haya sido ejecutado a la fuerza, y no existe legislación internacional que determine un mecanismo para cobrar un laudo arbitral contra un Estado. La mayoría de países tiene arbitrajes. Brasil, Argentina y Cuba, y no se caen y no son bloqueados.

--¿El Estado boliviano no pecó de oportunista al nacionalizar un negocio al que se habían inyectado 3.500 millones de dólares de inversión desde 1996? En apariencia echaron al equipo contrario y se quedaron con su balón.
--Nosotros teníamos nuestro equipo y vino un director técnico que reemplazó a los jugadores con extranjeros. Se quedó con nuestro balón, con la cancha y se hizo dueño del juego. El balón y la cancha vuelven a ser nuestros, y el jugador extranjero se somete al nuevo director técnico. Una auditoría determinará si existió esa inversión y si la recuperaron total o parcialmente.

--¿Cómo se garantizará en el futuro que los movimientos sociales no influyan nuevamente en un cambio de reglas a la inversión extranjera?
--Estamos seguros de que más de 80 por ciento de la población está de acuerdo con la nacionalización que nació del referéndum de julio de 2004, en el cual nos ordenaban recuperar la propiedad de los hidrocarburos. Vamos a ser durísimos con las empresas, pero garantizaremos contratos seguros. Se someten o se van.

--¿YPFB volverá a ser actor de la cadena productiva?
--El 32 por ciento de San Alberto y San Antonio serán destinados a YPFB, que se convierte en sujeto de crédito y socio fuerte para una inversión.
Más temprano que tarde, el pueblo recibirá noticias que la empresa estatal volverá a realizar tareas de exploración. Nacionalizar toda la cadena productiva habría sido un salto al vacío. Al día siguiente se habría paralizado el suministro de carburantes. La nacionalización del 51 por ciento de las empresas que pertenecieron a YPFB antes de la privatización, garantizó la continuidad de todas las operaciones.

--¿En qué medida influyó el modelo venezolano?
--Este régimen es diferente al que los hermanos de Venezuela aplican. Al margen de acusaciones fáciles sobre una decisión influenciada, los expertos del sector saben que el concepto de asociaciones mixtas es diferente al modelo boliviano.

--¿Cuba aportó ideológicamente al proceso de nacionalización?
--Cuba significa un faro de guía para los movimientos sociales latinoamericanos, pero en cuanto al sector petrolero, nuestro estilo es diferente. En el caso cubano, el Estado comercializa una parte de la producción, mientras en Bolivia el Estado se encarga de comercializar el 100 por ciento.

--Los medios de prensa informaron de la interpelación a Morales de los presidentes Lula, de Brasil, y Néstor Kirchner, de Argentina, por la nacionalización sin aviso. ¿Cuál es su opinión?
--En la cumbre de presidentes de Iguazú, las tres grandes economías de América Latina (incluida Venezuela) tuvieron que reconocer el derecho soberano de Bolivia a decidir sobre sus recursos naturales. Desde ahora se cuenta con un nuevo actor importante para negociar: el Estado y el gobierno.

--¿Cuánto influyó la demanda urgente de gas natural en Brasil y Argentina para dar el paso definitivo?
--Se analizaron las condiciones del mercado y la coyuntura regional e internacional del sector, lo que permitió decisiones firmes y atrevidas. El verdadero atrevimiento es haber tenido el coraje de tomar medidas soberanas sin consultar a Brasil, Argentina, Estados Unidos y la Comunidad Europea.